Non-Finite , Grammar , American & British [ 16 ]

16- ] Grammar American & British .

The Non-Finite .

Types and Uses of Non-finite clauses

Non-finite clauses will be divided according to two criteria: 1) according to their form

(into infinitival, gerundive and participial clauses) 2) according to the type of subordinate

clause (into relative, adverbial and nominal clauses). In this I adopt the approach

presented by Quirk et al. (1991), but as will be shown, in further subclassifications of the

clauses my approach will sometimes differ.

The structure of the presentation will be the following. The main division will be made

into infinitival, gerundive and participial clauses, each of these clauses will be then

classified as regards their functions. Such approach aims to reflect the semantics of the

individual formal types of clauses (infinitival, gerundive, participial) and find out how the

meaning of these clauses influences the possibility of seeing them as condensed full

clauses

Mind the verbs in the following expressions:

Charles is a boy.

I worked hard.

Rajesh was a pilot.

She goes to Christ School.

The italicized verbs in the above sentences have completed the meaning of their Predicates. Even they have changed their forms in accordance with their respective Subject and its Number and Person. These verbs are Finite Verbs.

The verb which completes the sense of its Predicate and changes its forms after the Number and Person of its Subject is called a Finite Verb.

Generally the Verbs in the Indicative, Imperative and Subjective Mood are Finite Verbs.

Now mind the verbs in the following sentences:

To steal is a sin.

This house is to let.

Seeing is believing.

It was a sleeping dog.

Walking is good exercise.

The italicized verbs in the above sentences have kept their sense incomplete (as verbs). Instead, they function as the name of some actions.  They do not change their forms after their respective Subject, Number and Person. They are called a Non-Finite Verbs.

Generally, the Infinitives, Gerunds and Participles fall within the purview of Non-finite Verbs.

Let us discuss them in detail as under:

1. Infinitives

The infinitive is the ‘dictionary form’ of the verb [ i.e. the form under which a verb appears in the dictionary ] . It expresses the notion of the verb in its general sense , not as it applies to any particular subject . It is called infinitive because its form is not limited [ Latin finis = limit ] , as a finite verb is , by the number and person of its subject .

Mind the verbs in the following sentences:

He is ready to go there.

To err is human.

To see is to believe.

It is time to play.

In the above sentences, the verbs: to go, to err, to see, and to play have expressed the name of some actions. Such verbs are called Infinitives.

If we mind well, we see that these Infinitives have been formed by adding ‘to’ before the verbs. They are not functioning as the Principal Verbs in the sentences. The word ‘to’ used before each verb in the above sentences is not a Preposition. ‘To’ is merely used as an indicator of the Infinitives. None of them has changed its form after its Subject, Number and Person.

 There are four forms of the infinitive .

Active	Simple	Perfect
	[  to ] write	[ to ] have written
Passive	[ to ] be written	[ to ] have been written

Infinitives are of two kinds: 1. Simple Infinitives and 2. Gerundial Infinitives.

Let us talk about them as follows:

(a) Simple Infinitives:

Simple Infinitives are used as Nouns. They function as:

(i) The Subject of a Verb:

To read a newspaper is a good habit.

To walk is good exercise.

To drink water in the morning is good for health.

To waste our time is bad.

To blush is a modesty.

(ii) The Object to a Verb:

You should try to remind it.

The teacher advised me to take regular exercise.

He likes to play.

She began to cry.

Rana wants to go.

I shall try to do that.

(iii) The Subjective Complement of a Verb:

My hobby is to read.

His aims is to make friends with his colleagues.

To see is to believe.

She seems to be diligent.

He appears to be honest.

(iv) The Object of a Preposition:

Hira is about to win.

He cannot but to deny the offer.

We are about to go.

He is about to weep.

(b) Gerundial Infinitives:

Gerundial Infinitives express Purpose, Cause or Result. They function as:

(i) An Adjective:

Let me have a book to read.

This is a car to sell.

Give him a mango to eat.

This is a pen to write.

(ii) An Adverb to a Verb:

He cried to meet his friend.

We went to enjoy sports.

They came to see us.

(iii) An Adverb to an Adjective:

The boy is happy to meet his parents.

We are glad to find you.

Suzan is slow to walk.

(iv) To Qualify a Sentence:

To tell the truth, he is not guilty.

To speak the truth, I am happy to meet you.

To express the truth, his heart is full of kindness.

There are some Characteristics of Infinitives, as:

(i)The Infinitives can take an Object of its own:

He wishes to present us a book.

I like to learn Greek.

(ii) The Infinitive like any other Verb can take an Adverb to modify it:

We want to get it fine.

He likes to visit us again.

You want to read attentively.

In some sentence, if an Adverb or Adverb Phrase is used between the indicator of Infinitive (i.e. ‘to’), then the  Infinitive goes split. Such Infinitive is called Split Infinitive.

Examples:

He requested me to quickly go there.

He decided to intimately follow his leader.

But it is better to write these sentences as follows:

He requested me quickly to go there.

He decided to follow his leader intimately.

In some expression, the indicator of Infinitive (to) is omitted, as:

We saw Ahmad  (to) cross the bridge.

They help me (to) do the work well.

He made me (to) drink the cup of milk.

Some grammarians condemn the use of the ‘split infinitive’ [ e.g. the placing of a word or words between the ‘to’ and the verb ] as in ‘ to quickly agree’ , ‘to really understand’ . But the split infinitive dates back to the thirteenth century and can be found in the work of many famous authors . Fowler says : ‘A split infinitive , though not desirable in itself , is preferable to either of two things , to real ambiguity or to patent artificially . [ Modern English Usage] . He quotes with approval :

‘Our object is to further cement trade relations .’

‘This will tend to firmly establish good relations between Capital and Labour .’

Jesperson [ Essentials of English Grammar ] following Fowler , adds further examples of which he approves .

He likes to half close his eyes .

He was too ill to really carry out his duty .

The best guidance , perhaps , is : ‘Don’t use a split infinitive unless you have a good reason for doing so .

Examples

The infinitive with to is used :

1- ] After the special finites ‘ought’ and ‘used’ .

Examples

You ought to go .

I used to live there .

2- ] With ‘do’ , ‘need’ and ‘dare’ when they are used not as special finites but as full verbs .

Examples

I did it to please you . You don’t need to go yet .

He won’t dare to disobey his teacher .

3- ] With ‘be’ and ‘have’ when they are used to express commands , compulsion , etc.

Examples

You are to go to the headmaster’s room at one .

I have to be in my office by 9 o’clock .

The use of such infinitive without ‘to’ is called Bare Infinitive.

The infinitive without ‘to’ is sometimes called the ‘plain’ or ‘bare’ infinitive .

In the following cases the indicator of Infinitive (to) is not used:

(i) In Active Voice the verbs like know, watch, behold, make, please, see, feel, need, let, bit, watch, dare etc. do not take the marker of Infinitive (to) after them:

We made her (to) sweep the room.

Please (to) do the sum.

Let me (to) have a pen.

Bid her (to) sit on the chair.

But in Passive Voice, all the verbs except only ‘let’ take the marker of Infinitive (to) after them.

He was bid to sit on the chair.

Rita was heard to say so.

But the verb ‘dare’ when used in Affirmative sentence takes the marker of Infinitive after it:

She dared to do that.

We dared to challenge their feat.

(ii) Some special Finites like do , did , shall, should, will, would, can, could, must , need , dare , may and might do not take the marker of Infinitive ‘to’ after them.

Examples

We can do it.

You may come in.

He can speak French .

Did you hear a noise ?

I might go.

We shall meet him .

I will help you.

You must come with us .

You needn’t go yet .

I daren’t leave him .

He will meet us.

(iii) After the phrases ‘had better’ and ‘had ( would )rather’ , had ( would ) sooner , need hardly , cannot but  the indicator of Infinitive (to) is not used:

Examples

You had better tell him the truth .

I had [would] rather not see him .

I’d sooner take a taxi than walk .

I need hardly tell you how serious the matter is .

I cannot but [ = cannot do anything except ] agree to his terms .

We had better (to) give up smoking.

You had rather (to) accept this job.

(iv) The marker of Infinitive is not used after ‘then’ and also in the Past Tense after the word ‘but’:

He is stronger enough to fight than (to) play.

He did nothing but (to) read.

The infinitive without to is used after the verbs of perception [ see , hear , feel , taste , look , etc. ] and after ‘make’ and ‘let’ .

Examples

She saw him take the money .

I heard her play the piano .

He felt his blood run cold and his flesh creep .

The teacher made him write out the exercise again .

Don’t make me laugh .

I will let you use my bicycle .

Let’s all go to the park .

Note If these verbs are used in the passive voice , the infinitive takes to .

Examples

He was heard to cry .

They had been made to work .

He was seen to take the money .

The verb ‘help’ sometimes , and generally in American English is followed by the infinitive without ‘to’ .

Examples

He helped me [to] write the letter .

Will you help me [to] clean the car ?

The Participle ‘to’ Without The Infinitive

There are occasions when the particle ‘to’ is used without the infinitive verb . This construction [ omission of the infinitive verb ] occurs when the ‘to’ refers to a verb that has previously been used and that if expressed would be an infinitive with to .

Examples

I shall go if I want to [go] .

He won’t work harder than he needs to [work] .

He would like to come but he’s afraid he won’t be able to [come] .

If you don’t know the answer , you ought to [know it] .

‘Will you come to dinner with me ?’ ‘ I should love to [come] .’

Verbs Followed By The Infinitive .

The following verbs take the infinitive after them

1- ] All the special finites .

2- ] The following verbs

Common verbs followed by an infinitive:

Example: She threatened to quit if she didn't get a raise.

agree	appear	arrange	ask	attempt	beg
can/can’t afford	can/can’t wait	care	chance	choose	claim
come	consent	dare	decide	demand	deserve
determine	elect	endeavor	expect	fail	get
grow (up)	guarantee	hesitate	hope	hurry	incline
learn	manage	mean	need	neglect	offer
pay	plan	prepare	pretend	profess	promise
prove	refuse	remain	request	resolve	say
seek	seem	shudder	strive	struggle	swear
tend	threaten	turn out	venture	volunteer	wait
want	wish	would like	yearn

Examples

You ought to go there .

He has to see the dentist tomorrow .

You must endeavor to be better .

I hope you mean to do better .

He wants to pay a visit to England .

2. Gerund

A Gerund and a Present Participle have identical forms as both are formed by adding ‘ing’ with them. Bear in mind that a Gerund is a Verbal Noun as it functions as a Noun and a Present Participle is a Verbal Adjective as it qualifies a Noun.

Simon likes dancing (Gerund)

Dancing along the road, they went ahead. (Present Participle)

Mind the following sentences:

1. Swimming is good exercise.

2. Reading is a good amusement.

In the above sentence no. 1 the word ‘Swimming’ is formed of the verb ‘swim’ and in the sentence no. 2   ‘Reading’ is formed of the verb ‘read’. Both are followed by respective finite verbs and function as Nouns. These are Gerunds.

A Verb when takes ‘ing’ after it, becomes a Subject of a Finite Verb and functions as a Noun is called a Gerund. The gerund has most of the characteristics of a noun . Thus , Gerund may be used as:

(i) The subject of a Verb:

Examples

Working in these conditions is a pleasure .

The reading of the will took place in the lawyer’s office .

Reading is a good habit.

Seeing is believing.

Playing is good exercise.

Collecting Greeting Cards is my hobby.

(ii) The object of a Transitive Verb:

Examples

I remember seeing him .

She likes dancing .

Your hair needs cutting .

Have you finished writing your book ?

He likes delivering a lecture.

I like drinking coffee.

He abhors meeting people.

(iii) The complement of a Verb:

Examples

The only thing that interests her is dancing .

Seeing is believing .

To keep money that you have found is stealing .

What I like is reading.

He seems going there.

(iv) Absolutely in an Independent Clause:

Reading being my favorite activity, I frequent the District Library.

(v) Object to a Preposition:

The only part of a verb that can be the object of a preposition is a gerund .

Examples

He began by explaining the meaning of certain words .

She is very fond of dancing .

I don’t like the idea of spending so much money .

Thank you for returning the book that I lent you .

He left without saying anything .

Nasser is fond of singing.

We are eager of reading.

He is desirous of smoking.

The gerund has some characteristics of a verb .

1- ] It can take a direct object .

Examples

His hobby is collecting artifacts .

Meeting you has been a great pleasure .

He left without saying anything .

2- ] It can be modified by an adverb .

Examples

She likes driving fast .

Reading poetry well needs a lot of practice .

3- ] The gerund can be a noun modifier .

Examples

A walking-stick / a swimming-pool / knitting-needle / a reading-room / sewing-cotton / dancing-hall      

Participle                                                         Gerund

a dancing bear [ = a bear which dances ]  a dancing-teacher [ = a teacher of dancing ]

a traveling circus                                         a traveling-rug

a sleeping child                                            a sleeping-carriage

running water                                              a running-truck

The points of distinction between the gerund and the participle are :

1- ] The participle , which is partly an adjective , can be expanded into an adjective clause .

2- ] Both the present participle and the noun it qualifies take a strong stress . In the gerund construction only the gerund takes stress . Note , too , the hyphen with the gerund .

4- ] The gerund is modified by a possessive adjective or by the possessive form of nouns that can take this form .

Examples

It’s no use ( good ) your telling me not to worry .

He was chosen because of his being a fully qualified engineer .

She was annoyed at your saying that .

Please excuse my interrupting you .

We are quit used to Hassan’s grumbling .

They are looking forward to Salah’s coming .

- This is , perhaps , particularly the case when the gerund is the subject of the sentence .

Examples

Your being right doesn’t necessarily mean any being wrong .

I am sure Suzan’s sitting up so late is bad for her health .

Sandra’s grumbling annoyed her husband , but her mother’s coming to stay with them was the last straw .

- It is almost always the case after the verbs ‘ defer’ ‘delay , deny , postpone’ .

Examples

The firm have deferred my going on holidays until next month .

Don’t delay your sending in of the application form .

He doesn’t deny his breaking of the agreement .

I had to postpone my listening to his plans to a later date .

- This construction , however , is a literary one rather than a conversational one . In colloquial speech it is fairly common to hear a personal pronoun instead of the possessive adjective .

Examples

because of him being , ‘ …annoyed at you saying’ , ‘…..excuse me interrupting you’ / ‘…….used to Adel grumbling ‘ , ‘….. to Said coming’ .

C. C. Fries , Professor of English at the University of Michigan in his book ‘American English Grammar’ , page 84 made an investigation into the use of the genitive form of nouns and pronouns with gerunds in current Standard English ( American ) says ‘ It is clear that the use of the inflected genitive form of nouns is not the normal practice before gerunds in the Standard English .In the case of pronouns , however , the situation appears to be different . Fifty-two per cent of the cases in Standard English have the genitive form of the pronoun before the verbal ( i.e. the gerund ) .

there are cases not only in colloquial but in literary English where the genitive form would never be used .

Examples

I don’t like strangers interfering in my affairs .

I am surprised at someone so rich having difficulty in paying what he owes you .

He said he was in favor or people working shorter hours .

He laughed at my brother and me liking rice pudding .

The law was passed to prevent people being injured .

There is no need for that being done .

A shortage of steel would involve men being dismissed .

- It could be used in sentences as .

I cannot understand their being forbidden to go to the meeting .

Verbs Followed By The Gerund .

It is not always easy to decide when the gerund should be used after a verb and when the infinitive , so you can check a dictionary , but the general usage :

1- ] Common verbs followed by a gerund:

abhor	acknowledge	admit	advise	allow	anticipate
appreciate	avoid	be worth	can’t help	celebrate	confess
consider	defend	delay	detest	discontinue	discuss
dislike	dispute	dread	endure	enjoy	escape
evade	explain	fancy	fear	feel like	feign
finish	forgive	give up (stop)	keep (continue)	keep on	mention
mind (object to)	miss	necessitate	omit	permit	picture
postpone	practice	prevent	put off	recall	recollect
recommend	report	resent	resist	resume	risk
shirk	shun	suggest	support	tolerate	understand
urge	warrant

Examples

He misses playing with his friends.

I couldn’t avoid meeting him .

He enjoys listening to music .

I couldn’t risk missing that train .

Do you mind passing the salt ?

2- ] Mind , with the meaning ‘object to’ is generally used in interrogative and negative sentences . It can occasionally be used in affirmative sentences when it is in answer to a question ,’Do you mind ….?

Example

Do you mind my smoking ? Yes , I mind very much .

Examples

Do you mind answering my question ?

I don’t mind working overtime .

3- ] The gerund is also used after nearly all phrasal verbs .

You must go on working .

He wants to give up smoking .

She burst out crying .

You must keep on trying .

4- ] It is used too , after the phrases : ‘it’s no good’ , ‘ it’s no use’ , ‘is worth’ , ‘to be fond of’ , ‘capable of’ , ‘sick of’ , ‘ look forward to’ .

Examples

It is no use crying over spilt milk .

If a thing is worth doing , it’s worth doing well .

I’m tired of meeting the same people day after day .

Verbs followed by a gerund or infinitive with little to no change in meaning:

Example: It started to rain. / It started raining.

begin	cease	can’t bear	dread
can’t stand	need	continue	neglect
hate	omit	like	learn
love	intend	prefer
propose		start

Verbs followed by a gerund or infinitive with a change in meaning:

forget  I forgot to meet him.

(I didn’t meet him because I forgot to do it.)

I forgot meeting him.

(I don’t have the memory of meeting him before.)

go on   He went on to learn English and French.

(He ended one period of time before this.)

He went on learning English and French.

(He continued learning the languages.)

quit      She quit to work here.

(She quit another job in order to work here.)

She quit working here.

(She quit her job here. She doesn’t work here anymore.)

regret  I regret promising to help you.

(I’m sorry that I made the promise.)

I regret to tell you that we can't hire you.

(I’m telling you now, and I’m sorry.)

remember       She remembered to visit her grandmother.

(She didn’t forget to visit.)

She remembered visiting her grandmother.

(She had memories of this time.)

stop     I stopped to call you.

(I interrupted another action in order to call you.)

I stopped calling you.

(I stopped this activity. Maybe we had a fight.)

try       I tried to open the window.

(I attempted this action but didn’t succeed.)

I tried opening the window.

(This was one option I sampled. Maybe the room was hot.)

3. Participles

 1- ] The terms ‘present’ and ‘past’ here may be misleading . The ‘past’ participles in such phrases as ‘a distinguished scientist’ , ‘a crowded train’ , ‘spoken English’ do not refer necessarily to an action or state in the past ; nor does the ‘present participle’ in ‘a charming woman’ , ‘an interesting book’ signify any time at all . It is , however , convenient now that the to retain the usual terminology .

Examples

Mind the italicized words in the following sentences:

It is a singing bird.

A rolling stone gathers no moss.

A burnt child dreads the fire.

The italicized words i.e. ‘singing’ and ‘rolling’ in the above sentence no. 1 and 2 are formed of verbs ‘sing’ and ‘roll’  by adding ‘ing’ after them. Each of them has functioned both as a verb and as an adjective. In the sentence no 3. the italicized word ‘burnt’ is formed of the verb ‘burn’ by adding -t after it and it works as an Adjective. These are Participles.

A Verb that is partly a verb and partly an Adjective is called a Participle.

2- ] There are three kinds of Participles: 1. Present Participle, 2. Past Participle and 3. Perfect Participle .

1. The Present Participle:

A Present Participle is formed by adding ‘ing’ after the present form of a verb to make Continuous Tense.

Examples:

I am reading.

The dog is barking.

They are working in the field.

A Present Participle is an Adjective while it qualifies a Noun or Pronoun as in the following example:

A laughing boy comes here.

2. The Past Participle:

The Past Participle refers to the third form of a verb. It ends in -en, -n, -d, -ed or -t.  It is used:

(i) To form Perfect Tense with the suitable Helping Verb (have, has, had):

He has done the work.

We have performed our respective duty.

(ii) To form the Passive Voice with the suitable form of the Verb “Be” (am, is, are, was, were):

They were tired.

I was pleased with his behavior.

He was mocked at by them.

(iii) Attributively, Predicatively and Object Complement, like the Present Participle:

The burnt child was crying. (Attributive)

The girl seems unattentive. ( Predicative)

They found the gate closed. (Object Complement)

(iv) Like an Adverb to modify a Verb:

He left away displeased.

(v) To form an Adjectival Phrase:

The goods once sold, cannot be taken back.

(vi) To join two sentences:

Having completed our works we returned home. (We completed our works. We returned home.)

While using Participle, mind the following Rules to avoid errors:

Rule 1.  A participle is an Adjective and as it is an Adjective it must be related to some Noun or Pronoun which it qualifies. It should never be left unattached:

Climbing up the tree, he saw a tower.

or

He, climbing up the tree, saw a tower. (but not ‘Climbing up the tree, a tower was seen). Thus:

Entering the chamber, I lighted the candle. (but not ‘Entering the chamber, the lamp was lighted.’)

Rule 2. With the Participle ‘Being’ when used for weather, season etc. the neutral ‘It’ should be used. For example:

It being a rainy day, the office was closed.

It being very hot, we remained within doors.

Rule 3. It is not necessary to relate such Participles as considering, taking, regarding, speaking, owing to etc. to any Noun or Pronoun. They must be left unrelated:

Speaking truly, the house is on the top of the hill.

Regarding his ability, we have no doubt.

Rule 4. A Present Participle should not be used to express an action which cannot and does not, take place at the same time as the action denoted by the finite verb in a sentence. In such cases, the Indefinite Tense must be used instead of the Participle. For example:

We started for Cochin on Sunday and arrived there on Tuesday.  (but not, ‘We started for Cochin on Sunday, arriving there on Tuesday.’)

3- ] The verbs ‘may’ , ‘shall’ , ‘can’ , ‘will’ , ‘must’ , ought’ , ‘used to’ ,etc. have no participles

4- ] The difference between the present participle construction and the past participle one is that the present participle construction generally has an active meaning , the past participle a passive one .

Examples

Present Participle                                                            Past Participle

He found the fire burning brightly .                      He found the house burned down .

[ = the fire was burning (Active) ]                         [ = the house was burned . (Passive) ]

I heard him playing music .                                   I heard music played by the band .

[ = he was playing . (Active) ]                                [ = it was played by . (Passive) ]

5- ] The past participle is active in some cases .

Examples

a retired teacher = a teacher who has retired

the fallen angels = the angels who fell

a withered [ faded ] rose = a rose that has withered [ faded ]

an escaped prisoner = a prisoner who has escaped .

The Adjectival Uses Of Participles .

The participles have another function . Though they are partly verbs , they are also partly adjectives and can function as noun qualifiers .So they can be used attributively and predicatively .

Examples

Present Participles used attributively

an exciting story / disappointing news / a good-looking man , an unpromising start

‘Scrooge ! a squeezing , wrenching , grasping , scraping , clutching old sinner .’ [ Dickens ]

Present Participle Used Predicatively

The story was exciting .

He is very good-looking .

The news is disappointing .

Past Participle Used Attributively

the broken bottles , tired workers , the unknown hero , a clean-shaven man

Past Participle Used Predicatively

The bottles were broken .

He is clean-shaven .

She is tired .

the participles here are in fact exactly like adjectives ; they admit of comparison [ most charming , more tired ] and can be modified by adverbs [ very good-looking  , rather disappointing , completely clean-shaven ] .

But many , in fact most participles are not purely adjectival .

Examples

He stood there watching the men at work .

I hope Saleh didn’t keep you waiting .

Nader is busy cleaning the car .

His objections , if listened to , would wreck the plan .

He will come if asked .

The Position Of Participles .

Like ordinary adjectives , participles , if they are adjuncts of a noun , usually precede it . When the participle forms part of a phrase or has more of a verbal than an adjectival quality , it follows the noun .

Examples

Adjunct of a noun                                                    Part of a phrase

The spoken language                                         The language spoken in England

The torn sails of the ship                                   The ship came into port , its sails torn by the gale .

The knight still grasped his broken sword .    The knight stood at bay ; his sword broken in the fight                  was useless .

I have his written promise .                              Here is a letter written by Charles I .

Listen to the singing birds .                              The birds singing in the trees filled the air with music .

Participles With The Infinitive .

There is a construction with the participle that is similar to the ‘accusative infinitive’ construction used with the infinitive . The construction is used after verbs like ,’see’ , ‘hear’ , ‘feel’ , ‘find’ , ‘make’ , ‘want’ , ‘get’ , ‘like’ .

Examples

I saw him ( accusative ) running ( participle ) for the train .

I could hear the boys playing in the field .

He was glad to find the fire burning brightly .

When they came home they found the house burnt down .

He soon made his presence felt and his wishes known .I should like this matter settled immediately .

He wanted his eggs fried .

Participles As Adjective Clause Equivalents .

The participle phrase is frequently the equivalent of an adjective clause or of an adverb clause .

Examples

There were a lot of boys in the field playing football . [ = who were playing football ]

The woman driving the car indicated that she was going left and then turned right .

[ = who was driving the car ]

The ship battered by the storm crept into the harbor . [ = which had been battered ]

The escaped convict has been captured . [ = who had escaped ]

The concert given by the orchestra was a great success . [ = which was given ]

Participles As Adverb Clause Equivalents .

The construction is literary rather than colloquial .

Examples

Being naturally cautious , he read the letter twice before saying anything . [ = as / because he was ]

Going cautiously into the dark room , he felt for the light switch . [ = as he went ]

Seeing that it was raining , Ahmad put on his coat . [ = because he saw ]

Born and bred a countryman , he was bewildered by the city .

[ = because he was born and bred as a countryman ]

Mis-Related  Participles .

1- ] Care should be taken in using the above construction to make sure that the participles are correctly related . The word to which the participle relates should be the same as the subject of the verb .

Examples

Walking through the park we saw a lovely show of daffodils . [ correct . Since it was ‘we’ who were walking the participle is correctly related ]

Walking through the park , the daffodils made a lovely sight . [ wrong . It was not the

daffodils , who were walking ]

Standing on the tower we could see the whole village below us . [ correct . It was ‘we’ who were standing ]

Standing on the tower , the whole village could be seen . [ wrong . It was not the whole village who was standing ]

2- ] There are cases where a participle may be found unattached and not logically related to the subject of the verb . This occurs :

1- ] In a number of expressions so frequently used that they are accepted as correct .

Examples

Generally speaking  , a footballer of 20 is better than one of 40 .

Talking of football , have you seen the Italian team play ?

Considering the position as a whole , he is better off now than he was a year ago .

It has cost ,roughly speaking ,about $ 500 .

Allowing for extras , the tour will cost $ 150 .

Strictly speaking  , you have no right to be here .

2- ] In the nominative absolute construction , where the participle with a noun or pronoun preceding it and acting as its subject forms  a phrase independent in construction of the rest of the sentence . The absolute phrase may be active in this case the present participle is used .

Examples

The feast being a holiday , the shops were all closed .

The last train having gone ,we had to walk home .

We explored the caves , Mohamad acting as guide .

Weather permitting , the football match will be played on Tuesday .

- The construction may be passive , in this case the past participle is used .

Examples

All things considered , I think we ought to award the job to Ali .

Granted that he is not brilliant , he is at least competent and works hard .

This done , they packed up their tools and went home .

- The absolute construction is literary rather than colloquial .

3- ] In conversation the participle phrase is usually made into an adverb clause .

examples

As the feast was a holiday , the shops were closed .

When this was done , they packed up their tools and went home .

Compound Participles

3-] The Perfect Participle

the perfect participle refers to an action that took place before the time expressed by the main verb .

In addition to the ‘simple’ participles ; the present participle and the past participle , there are three ‘compound ones . They are :

 1- ] The Present Passive Participle [ formed by being + past participle ]

Example

The essays being written will be sent to the headmaster .

2.  ]The Perfect Participle Active :

having + Past Participle

The Perfect Participle is formed by using ‘having’ before the third form of a verb:

Examples

Having written the essay , the boy was allowed to go home .

Having bathed, we went out.

Having rested, they began to dance.

Having completed the work, we drank soup.

3- ] The Perfect Participle Passive [ formed by having been + past participle ]

Example

All the essays having been written and collected , the teacher sent the class home .

EXERCISE

1. Correct the following sentences:

(i) I hope that you will be successful to get the job. (ii) You are requested to kindly grant me a leave for three days. (iii) You need not ask such a  question. (iv Leaving Madras on Monday, he arrived in Calcutta on the next day. (v) You should try to clear to understand these rules.  (vi) I am to please as many people as possible. (vii) I intended to have been present. (viii) He did not dare to say such a thing. (ix) Going up the street an elephant was seen. (x) He seems to enjoy his stay at Cairo .

2. Complete the following sentences, by adding a Gerund or an Infinitive (whichever correct):

(i) My Parents never approved ………….. (ii) My mother dislikes ………. (iii) Most children enjoy …………… (iv) You will succeed if you keep on …………. (v) He was punished …………………. (vi) The President objected ……………….. (vii) We were waiting ………….. (viii)My parents are not accustomed to ………. (ix)My child likes ………………….. (x) He is fond of…………………. (xi) Would you mind ……….? (xi) I am sorry …………..

3. Rewrite the following sentences using the neuter ‘It’:

(i) To read your handwriting is impossible. (ii) To hear the sound of the lake is very amusing. (iii)To climb Everest is very difficult. (iv) To call people’s name is not polite. (v) To betray one’s friend is disgraceful. (vi) To bribe a man is an offence.

4. Join each of the following pair of sentences, using a Participle:

(i) We reached the station. We purchased the tickets.

(ii) He saw the policeman. He took to his heels.

(iii) The rain stopped.  We went for playing cricket.

(iv) We arrived in the port. We went to the seashore.

(v)The boy heard a loud cry. He was startled.

5. Rewrite the following sentences using the correct form (‘ing’ or ‘ to’ – verb form) of the verbs given within brackets:

(i) I hate (get up) early and dress in the dark.

(ii) The manager let us (watch) the actor’s rehearsal.

(iii) I had to ask the baby (stop) play.

(iv) Please do not talk of (go) before (see) my photo album.

(v) I would like (take) a more English lesson.

6. Find out which of the words ending in -ing in the following sentences are Gerund and which are Present Participle:

(i) Swimming is good exercise. (ii) I saw Ali driving a car. (iii) Swimming in the pond, he suddenly saw a fish. (iv) Watching at a cloudless sky is his favorite pastime. (v) Seeing is believing.