16- ] Grammar American & British .
The
Non-Finite .
Types and Uses of Non-finite clauses
Non-finite clauses will be divided according to two criteria: 1)
according to their form
(into infinitival, gerundive and participial clauses) 2) according
to the type of subordinate
clause (into relative, adverbial and nominal clauses). In this I
adopt the approach
presented by Quirk et al. (1991), but as will be shown, in further
subclassifications of the
clauses my approach will sometimes differ.
The structure of the presentation will be the following. The main
division will be made
into infinitival, gerundive and participial clauses, each of these
clauses will be then
classified as regards their functions. Such approach aims to
reflect the semantics of the
individual formal types of clauses (infinitival, gerundive,
participial) and find out how the
meaning of these clauses influences the possibility of seeing them
as condensed full
clauses
Mind the verbs in the following expressions:
Charles is a boy.
I worked hard.
Rajesh was a pilot.
She goes to Christ School.
The italicized verbs in the above sentences have completed the
meaning of their Predicates. Even they have changed their forms in accordance
with their respective Subject and its Number and Person. These verbs are Finite
Verbs.
The verb which completes the sense of its Predicate and changes its
forms after the Number and Person of its Subject is called a Finite Verb.
Generally the Verbs in the Indicative, Imperative and Subjective
Mood are Finite Verbs.
Now mind the verbs in the following sentences:
To steal is a sin.
This house is to let.
Seeing is believing.
It was a sleeping dog.
Walking is good exercise.
The italicized verbs in the above sentences have kept their sense
incomplete (as verbs). Instead, they function as the name of some actions. They do not change their forms after their
respective Subject, Number and Person. They are called a Non-Finite Verbs.
Generally, the Infinitives, Gerunds and Participles fall within the
purview of Non-finite Verbs.
Let us discuss them in detail as under:
1.
Infinitives
The infinitive is the ‘dictionary form’ of the verb [ i.e. the form
under which a verb appears in the dictionary ] . It expresses the notion of the
verb in its general sense , not as it applies to any particular subject . It is
called infinitive because its form is not limited [ Latin finis = limit
] , as a finite verb is , by the number and person of its subject .
Mind the verbs in the following sentences:
He is ready to go there.
To err is human.
To see is to believe.
It is time to play.
In the above sentences, the verbs: to go, to err, to see, and to
play have expressed the name of some actions. Such verbs are called
Infinitives.
If we mind well, we see that these Infinitives have been formed by
adding ‘to’ before the verbs. They are not functioning as the Principal Verbs
in the sentences. The word ‘to’ used before each verb in the above sentences is
not a Preposition. ‘To’ is merely used as an indicator of the Infinitives. None
of them has changed its form after its Subject, Number and Person.
|
Active
|
Simple
|
Perfect
|
|
[ to ] write
|
[ to ] have written
|
|
|
Passive
|
[ to ] be written
|
[ to ] have been written
|
Infinitives are of two kinds: 1. Simple Infinitives and 2.
Gerundial Infinitives.
Let us talk about them as follows:
(a) Simple Infinitives:
Simple Infinitives are used as Nouns. They function as:
(i) The Subject of a Verb:
To read a newspaper is a good habit.
To walk is good exercise.
To drink water in the morning is good for health.
To waste our time is bad.
To blush is a modesty.
(ii) The Object to a Verb:
You should try to remind it.
The teacher advised me to take regular exercise.
He likes to play.
She began to cry.
Rana wants to go.
I shall try to do that.
(iii) The Subjective Complement of a Verb:
My hobby is to read.
His aims is to make friends with his colleagues.
To see is to believe.
She seems to be diligent.
He appears to be honest.
(iv) The Object of a Preposition:
Hira is about to win.
He cannot but to deny the offer.
We are about to go.
He is about to weep.
(b) Gerundial Infinitives:
Gerundial Infinitives express Purpose, Cause or Result. They
function as:
(i) An Adjective:
Let me have a book to read.
This is a car to sell.
Give him a mango to eat.
This is a pen to write.
(ii) An Adverb to a Verb:
He cried to meet his friend.
We went to enjoy sports.
They came to see us.
(iii) An Adverb to an Adjective:
The boy is happy to meet his parents.
We are glad to find you.
Suzan is slow to walk.
(iv) To Qualify a Sentence:
To tell the truth, he is not guilty.
To speak the truth, I am happy to meet you.
To express the truth, his heart is full of kindness.
There are some Characteristics of Infinitives, as:
(i)The Infinitives can take an Object of its own:
He wishes to present us a book.
I like to learn Greek.
(ii) The Infinitive like any other Verb can take an Adverb to
modify it:
We want to get it fine.
He likes to visit us again.
You want to read attentively.
In some sentence, if an Adverb or Adverb Phrase is used between the
indicator of Infinitive (i.e. ‘to’), then the
Infinitive goes split. Such Infinitive is called Split Infinitive.
Examples:
He requested me to quickly go there.
He decided to intimately follow his leader.
But it is better to write these sentences as follows:
He requested me quickly to go there.
He decided to follow his leader intimately.
In some expression, the indicator of Infinitive (to) is omitted,
as:
We saw Ahmad (to) cross the
bridge.
They help me (to) do the work well.
He made me (to) drink the cup of milk.
Some grammarians condemn the use of the ‘split infinitive’ [ e.g.
the placing of a word or words between the ‘to’ and the verb ] as in ‘ to
quickly agree’ , ‘to really understand’ . But the split infinitive dates back
to the thirteenth century and can be found in the work of many famous authors .
Fowler says : ‘A split infinitive , though not desirable in itself , is
preferable to either of two things , to real ambiguity or to patent
artificially . [ Modern English Usage] . He quotes with approval :
‘Our object is to further cement trade relations .’
‘This will tend to firmly establish good relations between Capital
and Labour .’
Jesperson [ Essentials of English Grammar ] following Fowler
, adds further examples of which he approves .
He likes to half close his eyes .
He was too ill to really carry out his duty .
The best guidance , perhaps , is : ‘Don’t use a split infinitive
unless you have a good reason for doing so .
Examples
The infinitive with to is used :
1- ] After the special finites ‘ought’ and ‘used’ .
Examples
You ought to go .
I used to live there .
2- ] With ‘do’ , ‘need’ and ‘dare’ when they are used
not as special finites but as full verbs .
Examples
I did it to please you . You don’t need to go yet .
He won’t dare to disobey his teacher .
3- ] With ‘be’ and ‘have’ when they are used to
express commands , compulsion , etc.
Examples
You are to go to the headmaster’s room at one .
I have to be in my office by 9 o’clock .
The use of such infinitive without ‘to’ is called Bare Infinitive.
The infinitive without ‘to’ is sometimes called the ‘plain’ or
‘bare’ infinitive .
In the following cases the indicator of Infinitive (to) is not
used:
(i) In Active Voice the verbs like know, watch, behold,
make, please, see, feel, need, let, bit, watch, dare etc. do not take the
marker of Infinitive (to) after them:
We made her (to) sweep the room.
Please (to) do the sum.
Let me (to) have a pen.
Bid her (to) sit on the chair.
But in Passive Voice, all the verbs except only ‘let’
take the marker of Infinitive (to) after them.
He was bid to sit on the chair.
Rita was heard to say so.
But the verb ‘dare’ when used in Affirmative sentence takes the
marker of Infinitive after it:
She dared to do that.
We dared to challenge their feat.
(ii) Some special Finites like do , did , shall, should, will,
would, can, could, must , need , dare , may and might do not take the marker of
Infinitive ‘to’ after them.
Examples
We can do it.
You may come in.
He can speak French .
Did you hear a noise ?
I might go.
We shall meet him .
I will help you.
You must come with us .
You needn’t go yet .
I daren’t leave him .
He will meet us.
(iii) After the phrases ‘had better’ and ‘had ( would )rather’
, had ( would ) sooner , need hardly , cannot but the indicator of Infinitive (to) is not used:
Examples
You had better tell him the truth .
I had [would] rather not see him .
I’d sooner take a taxi than walk .
I need hardly tell you how serious the matter is .
I cannot but [ = cannot do anything except ] agree to his terms .
We had better (to) give up smoking.
You had rather (to) accept this job.
(iv) The marker of Infinitive is not used after ‘then’ and also
in the Past Tense after the word ‘but’:
He is stronger enough to fight than (to) play.
He did nothing but (to) read.
The infinitive without to is used after the
verbs of perception [ see , hear , feel , taste , look , etc. ] and after
‘make’ and ‘let’ .
Examples
She saw him take the money .
I heard her play the piano .
He felt his blood run cold and his flesh creep .
The teacher made him write out the exercise again .
Don’t make me laugh .
I will let you use my bicycle .
Let’s all go to the park .
Note If these verbs are used in the passive voice , the infinitive takes
to .
Examples
He was heard to cry .
They had been made to work .
He was seen to take the money .
The verb ‘help’ sometimes , and generally in American English is followed by the
infinitive without ‘to’ .
Examples
He helped me [to] write the letter .
Will you help me [to] clean the car ?
The Participle ‘to’ Without The Infinitive
There are occasions when the particle ‘to’ is used without the
infinitive verb . This construction [ omission of the infinitive verb ] occurs
when the ‘to’ refers to a verb that has previously been used and that if
expressed would be an infinitive with to .
Examples
I shall go if I want to [go] .
He won’t work harder than he needs to [work] .
He would like to come but he’s afraid he won’t be able to [come] .
If you don’t know the answer , you ought to [know it] .
‘Will you come to dinner with me ?’ ‘ I should love to [come] .’
Verbs
Followed By The Infinitive .
The following verbs take the infinitive after them
1- ] All the special finites .
2- ] The following verbs
Common verbs followed by an infinitive:
Example: She threatened to quit if she didn't get a raise.
|
agree
|
appear
|
arrange
|
ask
|
attempt
|
beg
|
|
can/can’t afford
|
can/can’t wait
|
care
|
chance
|
choose
|
claim
|
|
come
|
consent
|
dare
|
decide
|
demand
|
deserve
|
|
determine
|
elect
|
endeavor
|
expect
|
fail
|
get
|
|
grow (up)
|
guarantee
|
hesitate
|
hope
|
hurry
|
incline
|
|
learn
|
manage
|
mean
|
need
|
neglect
|
offer
|
|
pay
|
plan
|
prepare
|
pretend
|
profess
|
promise
|
|
prove
|
refuse
|
remain
|
request
|
resolve
|
say
|
|
seek
|
seem
|
shudder
|
strive
|
struggle
|
swear
|
|
tend
|
threaten
|
turn out
|
venture
|
volunteer
|
wait
|
|
want
|
wish
|
would like
|
yearn
|
|
|
Examples
You ought to go there .
He has to see the dentist tomorrow .
You must endeavor to be better .
I hope you mean to do better .
He wants to pay a visit to England .
2.
Gerund
A Gerund and a Present Participle have identical forms as both are
formed by adding ‘ing’ with them. Bear in mind that a Gerund is a Verbal Noun
as it functions as a Noun and a Present Participle is a Verbal Adjective as it
qualifies a Noun.
Simon likes dancing (Gerund)
Dancing along the road, they went ahead. (Present Participle)
Mind the following sentences:
1. Swimming is good exercise.
2. Reading is a good amusement.
In the above sentence no. 1 the word ‘Swimming’ is formed of the
verb ‘swim’ and in the sentence no. 2
‘Reading’ is formed of the verb ‘read’. Both are followed by respective
finite verbs and function as Nouns. These are Gerunds.
A Verb when takes ‘ing’ after it, becomes a Subject of a Finite
Verb and functions as a Noun is called a Gerund. The gerund has most of the
characteristics of a noun . Thus , Gerund may be used as:
(i) The subject of a Verb:
Examples
Working in these conditions is a pleasure .
The reading of the will took place in the lawyer’s office .
Reading is a good habit.
Seeing is believing.
Playing is good exercise.
Collecting Greeting Cards is my hobby.
(ii) The object of a Transitive Verb:
Examples
I remember seeing him .
She likes dancing .
Your hair needs cutting .
Have you finished writing your book ?
He likes delivering a lecture.
I like drinking coffee.
He abhors meeting people.
(iii) The complement of a Verb:
Examples
The only thing that interests her is dancing .
Seeing is believing .
To keep money that you have found is stealing .
What I like is reading.
He seems going there.
(iv) Absolutely in an Independent Clause:
Reading being my favorite activity, I frequent the District
Library.
(v) Object to a Preposition:
The only part of a verb that can be the object of a preposition is
a gerund .
Examples
He began by explaining the meaning of certain words .
She is very fond of dancing .
I don’t like the idea of spending so much money .
Thank you for returning the book that I lent you .
He left without saying anything .
Nasser is fond of singing.
We are eager of reading.
He is desirous of smoking.
The gerund has some characteristics of a verb .
1- ] It can take a direct object .
Examples
His hobby is collecting artifacts .
Meeting you has been a great pleasure .
He left without saying anything .
2- ] It can be modified by an adverb .
Examples
She likes driving fast .
Reading poetry well needs a lot of practice .
3- ] The gerund can be a noun modifier .
Examples
A walking-stick / a swimming-pool / knitting-needle / a
reading-room / sewing-cotton / dancing-hall
Participle Gerund
a dancing bear [ = a bear which dances ] a dancing-teacher [ = a teacher of dancing ]
a traveling circus a
traveling-rug
a sleeping child a
sleeping-carriage
running water a
running-truck
The points of distinction between the gerund and the participle are
:
1- ] The participle , which is partly an adjective , can be
expanded into an adjective clause .
2- ] Both the present participle and the noun it qualifies take a
strong stress . In the gerund construction only the gerund takes stress . Note
, too , the hyphen with the gerund .
4- ] The gerund is modified by a possessive adjective or by the
possessive form of nouns that can take this form .
Examples
It’s no use ( good ) your telling me not to worry .
He was chosen because of his being a fully qualified engineer .
She was annoyed at your saying that .
Please excuse my interrupting you .
We are quit used to Hassan’s grumbling .
They are looking forward to Salah’s coming .
- This is , perhaps , particularly the case when the gerund is the
subject of the sentence .
Examples
Your being right doesn’t necessarily mean any being wrong .
I am sure Suzan’s sitting up so late is bad for her health .
Sandra’s grumbling annoyed her husband , but her mother’s coming to
stay with them was the last straw .
- It is almost always the case after the verbs ‘ defer’ ‘delay ,
deny , postpone’ .
Examples
The firm have deferred my going on holidays until next month .
Don’t delay your sending in of the application form .
He doesn’t deny his breaking of the agreement .
I had to postpone my listening to his plans to a later date .
- This construction , however , is a literary one rather than a
conversational one . In colloquial speech it is fairly common to hear a
personal pronoun instead of the possessive adjective .
Examples
because of him being , ‘ …annoyed at you saying’ , ‘…..excuse me
interrupting you’ / ‘…….used to Adel grumbling ‘ , ‘….. to Said coming’ .
C. C. Fries , Professor of English at the University of Michigan in
his book ‘American English Grammar’ , page 84 made an investigation into
the use of the genitive form of nouns and pronouns with gerunds in current
Standard English ( American ) says ‘ It is clear that the use of the inflected
genitive form of nouns is not the normal practice before gerunds in the
Standard English .In the case of pronouns , however , the situation appears to
be different . Fifty-two per cent of the cases in Standard English have the
genitive form of the pronoun before the verbal ( i.e. the gerund ) .
there are cases not only in colloquial but in literary English
where the genitive form would never be used .
Examples
I don’t like strangers interfering in my affairs .
I am surprised at someone so rich having difficulty in paying what
he owes you .
He said he was in favor or people working shorter hours .
He laughed at my brother and me liking rice pudding .
The law was passed to prevent people being injured .
There is no need for that being done .
A shortage of steel would involve men being dismissed .
- It could be used in sentences as .
I cannot understand their being forbidden to go to the meeting .
Verbs
Followed By The Gerund .
It is not always easy to decide when the gerund should be used
after a verb and when the infinitive , so you can check a dictionary , but the
general usage :
1- ] Common verbs followed by a gerund:
|
abhor
|
acknowledge
|
admit
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advise
|
allow
|
anticipate
|
|
appreciate
|
avoid
|
be worth
|
can’t help
|
celebrate
|
confess
|
|
consider
|
defend
|
delay
|
detest
|
discontinue
|
discuss
|
|
dislike
|
dispute
|
dread
|
endure
|
enjoy
|
escape
|
|
evade
|
explain
|
fancy
|
fear
|
feel like
|
feign
|
|
finish
|
forgive
|
give up (stop)
|
keep (continue)
|
keep on
|
mention
|
|
mind (object to)
|
miss
|
necessitate
|
omit
|
permit
|
picture
|
|
postpone
|
practice
|
prevent
|
put off
|
recall
|
recollect
|
|
recommend
|
report
|
resent
|
resist
|
resume
|
risk
|
|
shirk
|
shun
|
suggest
|
support
|
tolerate
|
understand
|
|
urge
|
warrant
|
|
|
|
|
Examples
He misses playing with his friends.
I couldn’t avoid meeting him .
He enjoys listening to music .
I couldn’t risk missing that train .
Do you mind passing the salt ?
2- ] Mind , with the meaning ‘object to’ is generally used in interrogative
and negative sentences . It can occasionally be used in affirmative sentences
when it is in answer to a question ,’Do you mind ….?
Example
Do you mind my smoking ? Yes , I mind very much .
Examples
Do you mind answering my question ?
I don’t mind working overtime .
3- ] The gerund is also used after nearly all phrasal verbs .
You must go on working .
He wants to give up smoking .
She burst out crying .
You must keep on trying .
4- ] It is used too , after the phrases : ‘it’s no good’ , ‘ it’s
no use’ , ‘is worth’ , ‘to be fond of’ , ‘capable of’ , ‘sick of’ , ‘ look
forward to’ .
Examples
It is no use crying over spilt milk .
If a thing is worth doing , it’s worth doing well .
I’m tired of meeting the same people day after day .
Verbs followed by a gerund or infinitive with little to no change
in meaning:
Example: It started to rain. / It started raining.
|
begin
|
cease
|
can’t bear
|
dread
|
|
can’t stand
|
need
|
continue
|
neglect
|
|
hate
|
omit
|
like
|
learn
|
|
love
|
intend
|
prefer
|
|
|
propose
|
|
start
|
|
Verbs followed by a gerund or infinitive with a change in meaning:
forget I forgot to meet him.
(I didn’t meet him because I forgot to do it.)
I forgot meeting him.
(I don’t have the memory of meeting him before.)
go on He went on to learn
English and French.
(He ended one period of time before this.)
He went on learning English and French.
(He continued learning the languages.)
quit She quit to work here.
(She quit another job in order to work here.)
She quit working here.
(She quit her job here. She doesn’t work here anymore.)
regret I regret promising to help
you.
(I’m sorry that I made the promise.)
I regret to tell you that we can't hire you.
(I’m telling you now, and I’m sorry.)
remember She remembered to visit
her grandmother.
(She didn’t forget to visit.)
She remembered visiting her grandmother.
(She had memories of this time.)
stop I stopped to call you.
(I interrupted another action in order to call you.)
I stopped calling you.
(I stopped this activity. Maybe we had a fight.)
try I tried to open the
window.
(I attempted this action but didn’t succeed.)
I tried opening the window.
(This was one option I sampled. Maybe the room was hot.)
3.
Participles
Examples
Mind the italicized words in the following sentences:
It is a singing bird.
A rolling stone gathers no moss.
A burnt child dreads the fire.
The italicized words i.e. ‘singing’ and ‘rolling’ in the above
sentence no. 1 and 2 are formed of verbs ‘sing’ and ‘roll’ by adding ‘ing’ after them. Each of them has
functioned both as a verb and as an adjective. In the sentence no 3. the
italicized word ‘burnt’ is formed of the verb ‘burn’ by adding -t after it and
it works as an Adjective. These are Participles.
A Verb that is partly a verb and partly an Adjective is called a
Participle.
2- ] There are three kinds of Participles: 1. Present
Participle, 2. Past Participle and 3. Perfect Participle .
1. The Present Participle:
A Present Participle is formed by adding ‘ing’ after the present
form of a verb to make Continuous Tense.
Examples:
I am reading.
The dog is barking.
They are working in the field.
A Present Participle is an Adjective while it qualifies a Noun or
Pronoun as in the following example:
A laughing boy comes here.
2. The Past Participle:
The Past Participle refers to the third form of a verb. It ends in
-en, -n, -d, -ed or -t. It is used:
(i) To form Perfect Tense with the suitable Helping Verb (have,
has, had):
He has done the work.
We have performed our respective duty.
(ii) To form the Passive Voice with the suitable form of the Verb
“Be” (am, is, are, was, were):
They were tired.
I was pleased with his behavior.
He was mocked at by them.
(iii) Attributively, Predicatively and Object Complement, like the
Present Participle:
The burnt child was crying. (Attributive)
The girl seems unattentive. ( Predicative)
They found the gate closed. (Object Complement)
(iv) Like an Adverb to modify a Verb:
He left away displeased.
(v) To form an Adjectival Phrase:
The goods once sold, cannot be taken back.
(vi) To join two sentences:
Having completed our works we returned home. (We completed our
works. We returned home.)
While using Participle, mind the following Rules to avoid errors:
Rule 1. A participle is an
Adjective and as it is an Adjective it must be related to some Noun or Pronoun
which it qualifies. It should never be left unattached:
Climbing up the tree, he saw a tower.
or
He, climbing up the tree, saw a tower. (but not ‘Climbing up the
tree, a tower was seen). Thus:
Entering the chamber, I lighted the candle. (but not ‘Entering the
chamber, the lamp was lighted.’)
Rule 2. With the Participle ‘Being’ when used for weather, season
etc. the neutral ‘It’ should be used. For example:
It being a rainy day, the office was closed.
It being very hot, we remained within doors.
Rule 3. It is not necessary to relate such Participles as considering,
taking, regarding, speaking, owing to etc. to any Noun or Pronoun. They must be
left unrelated:
Speaking truly, the house is on the top of the hill.
Regarding his ability, we have no doubt.
Rule 4. A Present Participle should not be used to express an
action which cannot and does not, take place at the same time as the action
denoted by the finite verb in a sentence. In such cases, the Indefinite Tense
must be used instead of the Participle. For example:
We started for Cochin on Sunday and arrived there on Tuesday. (but not, ‘We started for Cochin on Sunday,
arriving there on Tuesday.’)
3- ] The verbs ‘may’ , ‘shall’ , ‘can’ , ‘will’ , ‘must’ ,
ought’ , ‘used to’ ,etc. have no participles
4- ] The difference between the present participle construction and
the past participle one is that the present participle construction generally
has an active meaning , the past participle a passive one .
Examples
Present Participle
Past Participle
He found the fire burning brightly . He found the house burned
down .
[ = the fire was burning (Active) ] [ = the house was
burned . (Passive) ]
I heard him playing music . I heard
music played by the band .
[ = he was playing . (Active) ] [ = it was
played by . (Passive) ]
5- ] The past participle is active in some cases .
Examples
a retired teacher = a teacher who has retired
the fallen angels = the angels who fell
a withered [ faded ] rose = a rose that has withered [ faded ]
an escaped prisoner = a prisoner who has escaped .
The Adjectival
Uses Of Participles .
The participles have another function . Though they are partly
verbs , they are also partly adjectives and can function as noun qualifiers .So
they can be used attributively and predicatively .
Examples
Present Participles used attributively
an exciting story / disappointing news / a good-looking man , an
unpromising start
‘Scrooge ! a squeezing , wrenching , grasping , scraping ,
clutching old sinner .’ [ Dickens ]
Present Participle Used Predicatively
The story was exciting .
He is very good-looking .
The news is disappointing .
Past Participle Used Attributively
the broken bottles , tired workers , the unknown hero , a
clean-shaven man
Past Participle Used Predicatively
The bottles were broken .
He is clean-shaven .
She is tired .
the participles here are in fact exactly like adjectives ; they
admit of comparison [ most charming , more tired ] and can be modified by
adverbs [ very good-looking , rather
disappointing , completely clean-shaven ] .
But many , in fact most participles are not purely adjectival .
Examples
He stood there watching the men at work .
I hope Saleh didn’t keep you waiting .
Nader is busy cleaning the car .
His objections , if listened to , would wreck the plan .
He will come if asked .
The Position Of
Participles .
Like ordinary adjectives , participles , if they are adjuncts of a
noun , usually precede it . When the participle forms part of a phrase or has
more of a verbal than an adjectival quality , it follows the noun .
Examples
Adjunct of a noun
Part of a
phrase
The spoken language The language spoken in England
The torn sails of the ship The ship came into port , its sails torn by
the gale .
The knight
still grasped his broken sword . The
knight stood at bay ; his sword broken in the fight was useless .
I have his written promise . Here is a letter
written by Charles I .
Listen to the singing birds . The birds singing
in the trees filled the air with music .
Participles
With The Infinitive .
There is a construction with the participle that is similar to the
‘accusative infinitive’ construction used with the infinitive . The
construction is used after verbs like ,’see’ , ‘hear’ , ‘feel’ , ‘find’ ,
‘make’ , ‘want’ , ‘get’ , ‘like’ .
Examples
I saw him ( accusative ) running ( participle ) for the train .
I could hear the boys playing in the field .
He was glad to find the fire burning brightly .
When they came home they found the house burnt down .
He soon made his presence felt and his wishes known .I should like
this matter settled immediately .
He wanted his eggs fried .
Participles
As Adjective Clause Equivalents .
The participle phrase is frequently the equivalent of an adjective
clause or of an adverb clause .
Examples
There were a lot of boys in the field playing football . [ = who
were playing football ]
The woman driving the car indicated that she was going left and
then turned right .
[ = who was driving the car ]
The ship battered by the storm crept into the harbor . [ = which
had been battered ]
The escaped convict has been captured . [ = who had escaped ]
The concert given by the orchestra was a great success . [ = which
was given ]
Participles
As Adverb Clause Equivalents .
The construction is literary rather than colloquial .
Examples
Being naturally cautious , he read the letter twice before saying
anything . [ = as / because he was ]
Going cautiously into the dark room , he felt for the light switch
. [ = as he went ]
Seeing that it was raining , Ahmad put on his coat . [ = because he
saw ]
Born and bred a countryman , he was bewildered by the city .
[ = because he was born and bred as a countryman ]
Mis-Related Participles .
1- ] Care should be taken in using the above construction to make
sure that the participles are correctly related . The word to which the
participle relates should be the same as the subject of the verb .
Examples
Walking through the park we saw a lovely show of daffodils . [
correct . Since it was ‘we’ who were walking the participle is correctly
related ]
Walking through the park , the daffodils made a lovely sight . [
wrong . It was not the
daffodils , who were walking ]
Standing on the tower we could see the whole village below us . [
correct . It was ‘we’ who were standing ]
Standing on the tower , the whole village could be seen . [ wrong .
It was not the whole village who was standing ]
2- ] There are cases where a participle may be found unattached and
not logically related to the subject of the verb . This occurs :
1- ] In a number of expressions so frequently used that they are
accepted as correct .
Examples
Generally speaking , a footballer of 20 is
better than one of 40 .
Talking of football , have you seen the Italian team play
?
Considering the position as a whole , he is better
off now than he was a year ago .
It has cost ,roughly speaking ,about $ 500 .
Allowing for extras , the tour will cost $ 150 .
Strictly speaking , you have no right to be
here .
2- ] In the nominative absolute construction , where the participle
with a noun or pronoun preceding it and acting as its subject forms a phrase independent in construction of the
rest of the sentence . The absolute phrase may be active in this case the
present participle is used .
Examples
The feast being a holiday , the shops were all closed .
The last train having gone ,we had to walk home .
We explored the caves , Mohamad acting as guide .
Weather permitting , the football match will be played on Tuesday .
- The construction may be passive , in this case the past
participle is used .
Examples
All things considered , I think we ought to award the job to Ali .
Granted that he is not brilliant , he is at least competent and
works hard .
This done , they packed up their tools and went home .
- The absolute construction is literary rather than colloquial .
3- ] In conversation the participle phrase is usually made into an
adverb clause .
examples
As the feast was a holiday , the shops were closed .
When this was done , they packed up their tools and went home .
Compound
Participles
3-]
The Perfect Participle
the perfect participle refers to an action that took place before
the time expressed by the main verb .
In addition to the ‘simple’ participles ; the present participle
and the past participle , there are three ‘compound ones . They are :
1- ] The Present Passive Participle
[ formed by being + past participle ]
Example
The essays being written will be sent to the headmaster .
2. ]The Perfect Participle
Active :
having + Past
Participle
The Perfect Participle is formed by using ‘having’ before the third
form of a verb:
Examples
Having written the essay , the boy was allowed to go home .
Having bathed, we went out.
Having rested, they began to dance.
Having completed the work, we drank soup.
3- ] The Perfect Participle Passive [ formed by
having been + past participle ]
Example
All the essays having been written and collected , the teacher sent
the class home .
EXERCISE
1. Correct the following sentences:
(i) I hope that you will be successful to get the job. (ii) You are
requested to kindly grant me a leave for three days. (iii) You need not ask
such a question. (iv Leaving Madras on
Monday, he arrived in Calcutta on the next day. (v) You should try to clear to
understand these rules. (vi) I am to
please as many people as possible. (vii) I intended to have been present.
(viii) He did not dare to say such a thing. (ix) Going up the street an
elephant was seen. (x) He seems to enjoy his stay at Cairo .
2. Complete the following sentences, by adding a Gerund or an
Infinitive (whichever correct):
(i) My Parents never approved ………….. (ii) My mother dislikes ……….
(iii) Most children enjoy …………… (iv) You will succeed if you keep on …………. (v)
He was punished …………………. (vi) The President objected ……………….. (vii) We were
waiting ………….. (viii)My parents are not accustomed to ………. (ix)My child likes
………………….. (x) He is fond of…………………. (xi) Would you mind ……….? (xi) I am sorry
…………..
3. Rewrite the following sentences using the neuter ‘It’:
(i) To read your handwriting is impossible. (ii) To hear the sound
of the lake is very amusing. (iii)To climb Everest is very difficult. (iv) To
call people’s name is not polite. (v) To betray one’s friend is disgraceful.
(vi) To bribe a man is an offence.
4. Join each of the following pair of sentences, using a
Participle:
(i) We reached the station. We purchased the tickets.
(ii) He saw the policeman. He took to his heels.
(iii) The rain stopped. We
went for playing cricket.
(iv) We arrived in the port. We went to the seashore.
(v)The boy heard a loud cry. He was startled.
5. Rewrite the following sentences using the correct form (‘ing’ or
‘ to’ – verb form) of the verbs given within brackets:
(i) I hate (get up) early and dress in the dark.
(ii) The manager let us (watch) the actor’s rehearsal.
(iii) I had to ask the baby (stop) play.
(iv) Please do not talk of (go) before (see) my photo album.
(v) I would like (take) a more English lesson.
6. Find out which of the words ending in -ing in the following
sentences are Gerund and which are Present Participle:
(i) Swimming is good exercise. (ii) I saw Ali driving a car. (iii)
Swimming in the pond, he suddenly saw a fish. (iv) Watching at a cloudless sky
is his favorite pastime. (v) Seeing is believing.
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