Spelling & Vocabulary Enrichment [ 30 ]

30 ] Spelling & Vocabulary Enrichment .

 

  

War and peace .

A- ] The outbreak [ start ] of war :

- Wars often start because of a ‘conflict’ [ strong disagreement ] between countries or groups of people , about ‘territory’ [ land that belongs to one country or group ].

- A country invaded another country . The country entered the other country ‘by force’ and ‘in large numbers’ and captured [ also took / took control of ] one of its cities . Soldiers from the other country had to ‘retreat’ [ go backward X advance ] to other positions . The army and air force of this country continued to ‘attack’ the cities [ took violent action to damage it] but the other country’s soldiers ‘defend’ them [ take action to protect them ] successfully .

B- ] A war zone :

- They are around the city of Y is now the main ‘war zone’ [ the area where the fighting is happening ] . The other country has asked for help from its ‘allies’ [ countries that are friends with this country ] . The allies sent ‘aid’ [ help ] in the form of extra ‘troops’ [ large groups of soldiers ] and supplies [ food and other things that are needed , e.g. , blankets and medicine ] . There is ‘shelling’ [ ‘firing’ of ‘guns’ and ‘explosives’ ] of the city every day , and hundreds of soldiers are either ‘killed’ or ‘wounded’ [ injured ] . Many ‘civilians’ [ ordinary people who are not in the army ] are also killed .

C- ] Peace talks :

For the civilians who are still ‘alive’ [ X dead ] , the situation gets worse . As winter approaches , food supplies ‘run out’ [ they are almost gone / finished ] . The soldiers get tired , and both sides begin to see that neither side can win the war ; they agree to meet for ‘peace talks’ [ talks to try to negotiate a ‘peace settlement’ / an end to the war ] . Finally they agree to a ‘cease-fire’ [ a period of no fighting ] .

D- ] Terrorism :

- ‘Terrorism’ is violent action for political reasons . People who do this are ‘terrorists’ , and a common terrorist crime is ‘hijacking’ [ taking control of a bus , train , ship or plane ; the people on board then become prisoners ] . The main purpose of hijacking is to use the prisoners [ called ‘hostages’ ] in order to ‘bargain’ for something [ to demand something in exchange for the hostages ] . The terrorists may agree to ‘release’ the hostages [ permit them to go free ] if government agrees to give the terrorists money or release other terrorists .

Pollution and the environment .

A- ] Important definitions :

- Many people ae worried about the environment [ the air , water and land around us ] as a result of the ‘harmful’ [ dangerous / damaging ] effects of human activity . Some of these activities cause ‘pollution’ [ dirty air , land and water ] , and some are ‘destroying’ the environment [ damaging it so badly that soon parts will not exist ] . Here are some of the problems :

- ‘the ozone layer’ : a layer of gases that stops the sun’s harmful radiation from reaching the earth . Recent research shows that there are now holes in parts of the ozone layer .

- ‘the greenhouse effect’ : when gases [ from pollution ] trap the sun’s heat , in the same way that the glass of a ‘greenhouse’ [ a glass building for growing plats in winter ] holds in heat . This may lead to ‘global warming’ .

- ‘global warming’ : an increase in world temperature caused , in part , by an increase in carbon dioxide and other gases .

- ‘acid rain ‘ : rain that contains dangerous chemicals ; this is caused by smoke from factories.

B - ] Common causes of damage :

- smoke from factories . – car ‘exhaust fumes’ . – ‘dumping’ [ throwing away ] industrial ‘waste’ [ unwanted material ] in sea and rivers . – ‘aerosol cans’ [ also called ‘spray cans’ ].

Some of these contain CFCs [ a type of chemical ] , which can damage the ozone layer .

C - ] Protecting [ stopping damage to ] the environment :

- Don’t ‘throw away ‘ bottles , newspapers , etc. Instead , take them to a ‘recycling center / bin’ so they can be ‘recycled’ [ used again ] .

- Walk , bicycle , or use ‘public transportation’ [ buses , subways , etc. ] ,if possible .

- Join a ‘carpool’ [ a group of car owners who agree to share their cars ; a different car is used for the group each day ] if you must drive to work or school .

- Don’t ‘waste’ [ use badly ] ‘resources’ [ e.g. water , gas ] . Try to ‘conserve / save X waste] them .

Spelling & Vocabulary Enrichment [ 29 ]

29- ] Spelling & Vocabulary Enrichment .

Making Uncountable Nouns Countable .

A- ]  You can make many ‘uncountable’ nouns ‘singular’ and ‘countable’ by adding a ‘piece of’ or a ‘little] ‘bit of’ . Similarly you can make such nouns ‘plural’ with ‘pieces of’ or ‘bits of’ . [ Bit is less formal than piece and they are not always interchangeable . ‘Bit’ can be used with all types of nouns . ‘Piece’ tends to be used more with ‘uncountable’ nouns . Bit suggests a smaller amount than piece .

- She bought an attractive old ‘piece of’ furniture at the auction sale .

- How many ‘pieces of’ luggage have you got with you ?

- The police collected ‘bits of’ information from different sources .

- Chopin wrote some wonderful ‘pieces of’ music .

- Before you go to England , you should know two ‘bits of’ advice .

- He spends all his money buying new ‘bits of’ computer equipment .

B-] A number of other words go with specific uncountable nouns :

1-] Weather :

- Today’s weather has been variable . In the north there were heavy ‘showers’[ of rain ].

- The sunny ‘spell’ [ of weather ] that we have had this last week has continued in much of the south although there were occasional ‘numbers of thunder’ and ‘flashes of lightning’ in some areas with some quite loud ‘claps of thunder’ in one or two areas . These were followed by a few ‘spots of rain’ but ‘gusts of wind’ soon blew them away and the sunshine returned .

2-] Groceries :

- I need a ‘loaf of’ bread , a couple of ‘slices of meat , two ‘bars of’ chocolate , a ‘tube of’ toothpaste , two ‘cartons of’ milk and three ‘bars of’ soap . [ slice can also be used with toast , bread , meat and cheese ]

3-] Nature :- Look at the ladybird on that ‘blade of’ grass !

- What’s happened ? Look at the ‘cloud of’ smoke hanging over the town !

- She blew little ‘puffs of’ smoke out of her cigarette straight into face .

- Let’s go out and get a ‘breath of’ fresh air .

- Put another ‘lump of’ coal on the fire , please . [ lump can also be used with ‘sugar’ ]

4-] Other :

- I had an amazing ‘stroke of’ luck this morning .

- I’ve never seen him do a ‘stroke of’ work . [ only in negative sentences ]

- I’ve never seen him in such a ‘fit of’ temper before .

- The donkey is the basic ‘means of’ transport on the island .

- Tights must be the most useful ‘article / item of’ clothing ever invented .

- There was an interesting ‘item of’ news about France on TV last night .

C-]  The phrase ‘ a state of’ can serve to make an uncountable noun singular . The nouns used with ‘state’ are usually abstract and include ‘chaos’ , ‘emergency’ , ‘tension’ , ‘confusion’ , ‘health’ , ‘disorder’ , ‘uncertainty’ , ‘poverty’ , ‘agitation’ , ‘despair’ and ‘flux’

[ continuous change ] e.g. a state of emergency .

Words that only occur in the plural .

A-] Tools , instruments , pieces of equipment :

- ‘scissors’ , ‘pliers’ , ‘pincers’ , ‘tweezers’ , ‘tongs’ , ‘headphones’ , ‘binoculars’ , ‘scales’ ,

‘handcuffs’ , ‘shears’ , ‘glasses / spectacles’ , ‘goggles’

B-] Things we wear :  ‘clothes’ , ‘pyjamas’ , ‘knickers / pants’ , ‘underpants / pants’ , ‘jeans’ ,

‘tights’ , ‘jodhpurs’ , ‘leggings’ , ‘dungarees’ , ‘shorts’ , ‘trousers’ , ‘braces’ , ‘[swimming] trunks’ .

C- ] More useful words :

- When I move to London , I’ll have to find ‘lodgings’ .  [ e.g. a room in a flat ]

- When will the ‘goods’ be delivered ? [ articles / items ]

- The architect inspected the ‘foundations’ before declaring that the ‘premises’ were safe .

     [ under the building / the buildings itself ]

- The military ‘authorities’ have established their ‘headquarters’ in the old Town Hall .

- The ‘acoustics’ in the new opera-house are near-perfect . [ quality of the sound ]

- The ‘contents’ of the house were sold after her death .

- ‘Looks’ are less important than personality in a partner .

- As you come to the ‘outskirts’ of the village , there are ‘traffic-lights’ . Turn left there .

                     [ the beginning or end of the village ] 

- The ‘stairs’ are a bit dangerous ; be careful .

- The ‘proceeds’ of the concerts are going to the children’s fund .[ money from selling tickets]

- A terrorist has escaped from prison . Her ‘whereabouts’ are unknown . [ where she is ]

D-] Words with plural form but used mostly with singular verbs :

- Names of some games : ‘billiards’ , ‘dominoes’ , ‘draughts’ , ‘darts’ , ‘bowls’ , ‘cards’ .

- Names of subjects / activities : ‘physics’ , ‘economics’ , ‘classics’ , ‘gymnastics’ , ‘aerobics’ ,

‘athletics’ , ‘maths’ .

- Some words look plural or may be thought of as plural , but are not , e.g. ‘means’ , ‘news’ ,

‘spaghetti’ [ an Italian plural form ] , ‘series’ .

- There was a ‘series’ of programs on TV about Japan .

- Is there a cheap ‘means’ of transport I could use to get there ?

Formal and informal words .

Formality is all about your relationship with the person you are speaking or writing to . If you use formal language , it may be because you wish to show respect , politeness , or to put yourself at a distance [ for example , ‘official’ language ] . Informal language can show friendliness , equality or a feeling of closeness and solidarity with someone . You should never use informal language just to sound fluent or clever . Slang is extremely colloquial language . Slang helps to make speech vivid , colorful  and interesting but it can easily be used inappropriately . Although slang is mainly used in speech , it is also often found in the popular press .

A-] Scales of formality :

Some groups of words can be put on a scale from formal to neutral to informal .

formal	neutral	informal
offspring	children	kids
abode / residence	house / flat	place
goodbye	bye-bye	bye or cheerio
alcoholic beverages	drink	booze
go amiss	go wrong	go pear-shaped

B-] Short , monosyllabic informal words :

Informal versions of words are often short and monosyllabic , as we can see in the right-hand column in the table above . They include slang words .

- It cost me ten ‘quid’ . [ pounds ] – I’ll help you peel the ‘spuds’ . [ potatoes]

- My ‘bike’’ s been stolen . [ bicycle ] . – Come and meet my ‘Mum’ and ‘Dad’ .        [ mother and father ]  - I always go be ‘tube’ . [ word used for the London Underground ]

- Hi ! Can’t stop ; see you , ‘bye’ ! [ hello ; goodbye ] – I’ll get a ‘cab’ from the station .[taxi]

C-] Clippings :

Shortening a word tends to make it less formal , as in ‘bye’ .

- I’ll meet you in the ‘lab’ [ laboratory ] . – What’s on ‘telly’ tonight ? [ television ]

- We should put an ‘ad’ [ advertisement ] / an ‘advert’[ advertisement] in the ‘paper’ [newspaper] – Shall I phone [telephone] them ?– Her sister’s a vet [ veterinary surgeon ].

D-] Formality in notices , instructions , etc. :

You will often see formal words in signs , notices and directions .

- This public house is closed until further notice .

- Articles deposited must be paid for in advance .

- Do not alight while the bus is in motion .

- We regret we cannot accept cheques .

- Do not address the driver unless the bus is stationary .

- Tickets must be purchased before boarding the train .

- Children are required not to deposit litter in the play area .

E-] Using slang appropriately :

Remember , it can be risky for someone who is not a native speaker to use slang . Firstly , because some slang expressions may cause offence to some sections of the population . For example , most policemen ae quite happy to be referred to as ‘coppers’ but are offended by the term ‘pigs’ . Similarly , you could probably use the word ‘sozzles’ [ meaning drunk ] in front of anyone but using the words ‘pissed’ , or ‘arseholed’ , which also mean drunk , could upset some people .

Secondly , slang words date very quickly . Different generations , for instance have used different slang expressions to say that something was ‘wonderful’ .

Pre-war : top-hole , 1940s : wizard , 1960s : fab , groovy , 1970s : cosmic , 1980s : brill , wicked , 1990s : cool , class .

B-] Some common slang words and expressions :

The words and expressions which are most likely to cause offence are underlined .

- Expressions for money : dough , bread , dosh , loot , brass , readies

- Expressions for the police : pigs , fuzz , cop[pers] , bill

- Expressions for drunk : pissed   , pie-eyed , paralytic   , legless  , arseholed

- Expressions for a stupid person : wally , prat , wanker  , jerk , dickhead  , plonker , pillock  , dork , clueless , out-to-lunch , doesn’t know his arse from his elbow

- Expressions for lavatory : loo , lav , bog , john

- Epressions for drink : booze , plonk [ wine ] , a bevvy

- Drug-related expressions : a fix , dope , grass , high , stoned , snow [ heroin ]

- Prison-related expressions : nick [ prison ] , nark [ informer ] , screw [ warder ]

C -] Slang is often used by one particular group and is unintelligible to other people . Here are some examples from American truck-drivers using CB radio to talk to each other .

- grandma lane : slow lane   , five finger discount : stolen goods  , super cola : beer

doughnuts : tyres , anklebiters : children , affirmative : yes , motion lotion : fuel , eyeballs : headlights .  

Spelling & Vocabulary Enrichment [ 28 ]

28- ] Spelling & Vocabulary Enrichment .

The Environment .

A-]  Iceland is an island republic in the North Atlantic . The ‘landscape’ consists largely of  ‘barren plains’ [ flat land where little grows ] and ‘mountains’ , with large ‘ice fields’ particularly in the south west . The island has ‘active volcanoes’      [ they still erupt ] and is known for its ‘thermal’ [hot] springs and ‘geysers’ [ warm water that fountains out of the ground ] . With less than 1% of the land suitable for growing ‘crops’ [ food that is grown ] , the nation’s ‘economy’ is based on fishing , and fish products account for 80% of the exports.

Area : 103,000 km² . ‘Population’ : 227,000 . ‘Capital’ : Reykjavik .

B-] Here are some other nouns which are useful when talking about the environment :

- Where land meets sea : ‘coast’ , ‘shore’ , ‘beach’ , ‘cliff’ , ‘cape’ , ‘peninsula’ , ‘cove’ , ‘bay’ , ‘gulf’ .

- Words connected with rivers : ‘source’ , ‘tributary’ , ‘waterfall’ , ‘mouth’ , ‘valley’ , ‘gorge’ , ‘delta’ , ‘brook’ , ‘stream’ , ‘estuary’

- Words connected with mountains : ‘foot’ , ‘ridge’ , ‘peak’ , ‘summit’ , ‘glacier’

C-] There are many environmental problems in the world today :

- The air , rivers and seas are all ‘polluted’ , especially in ‘over-populated’ and heavily industrialized regions . Poor ‘waste disposal’ is the cause of much of this ‘pollution’ .

- ‘Overfishing’ has depleted the numbers of fish in the oceans .

- The ‘destruction of the ozone layer’ is leading to climatic changes and what is known as the ‘greenhouse’ effect’ .

- The ‘destruction of the rain forests’ is causing widespread ecological problems .

- ‘Battery farming’ provides large amounts of food but it involves keeping animals in crowded and unnatural conditions .

Bureaucracy .

A-] What is it ?

Bureaucracy refers to official systems with rules and procedures used by officials  [bureaucrats] in an organization or a government . For many people it is a negative word , because it often means unnecessary rules , waiting in long lines and lots of documents and forms .

B- ] Documents :

When you need to ‘obtain’ [get] or show documents , it is important that you know the names of them . Here are some important documents .

- ‘passport’ : official identification that allows you to leave your country and enter others .

- ‘driver’s license : the official document that permits you to drive on public roads .

- ‘visa’ : gives you permission to enter , pass through , or leave a country

- ‘certificates’ : official pieces of paper stating certain facts , e.g. , a ‘birth certificate’ gives facts about your birth , a ‘marriage certificate’ states that two people are married .

- Officials often ‘check’ [look at and examine] your documents , e.g. the police may check your driver’s license ; customs officials may check your passport . Sometimes you will be asked for ‘identification / ID [ any document that shows who are you ; usually a driver’s license or passport is adequate for identification ] .

Some documents are for a ‘fixed’ period of time , e.g. , a visa may be for six months . At the end of that time , your visa ‘runs out / expires’ [ it finishes / comes to an end ] . If you want to stay in the country , you must ‘renew’ it [get a new one for a further period of time ] . You can renew a visa , a passport , a membership card for a club , etc.

C-] Forms :Sometimes you need to ‘fill in / fill out forms’ [ write information in the spaces ] .

- ‘landing card’ : a form you may have to fill out when you enter another country .

-‘registration form’ :a form you often fill in when you take a course or go to school .

- ‘application form’ : a form to write details about yourself , often when applying for a job , for a credit card , for admission to a school , etc.

- ‘income tax forms’ : forms you must fill out when you pay your income taxes .

With almost all forms , you will need to ‘sign’ them [ write your signature ]