8- ] Grammar American & British
Chapter Eight
Pronouns .
A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun . Pronouns may be
classified into the following kinds .
1- ] Personal 2- ]
Possessive 3- ] Demonstrative 4- ] Reflexive 5- ] Interrogative 6- ] Indefinite
7- ] Relative 8- ]
Distributive
Pronouns may show number , person , gender and case .
1st Person
Nominative Objective Nominative Objective
2nd Person
3rd Person
[Masculine]
[Feminine]
[Neuter]
[indefinite]
Person In Pronouns .
Speech naturally presupposes
two persons : a person who speaks ( The First Person ) and a person to ( the
Second Person ) . So ‘I’ , ‘we’ . are pronouns of the First Person ; ‘you’ (
thou , ‘they’ , ‘ye’ [archaic] ) are pronouns of the Second Person . Beyond
these two persons there is the whole
world of people and things that nay be spoken about . For all these we use the pronouns
of the Third Person ; ‘he’ , ‘she’ , ‘it’ , ‘one’ , ‘they’ .
Case
In Pronouns .
In addition to the possessive case ( my , his , her , its , your ,
our , their ) , there are two other cases in modern English : the Nominative
Case and the Objective Case . Some grammarians use the terms ‘Accusative case’
and ‘Dative case’ instead of the genera term ‘Objective Case’ . These
grammarians use the term ‘Accusative’ when the noun is 1- ] direct object of a
verb 2- ] governed by a preposition .They use the term ‘Dative’ when the noun
or pronoun is the Indirect Object of a verb .
Example
I gave the boy a book .
The form of nouns in English is the same , no matter whether they
are in the nominative case or in the objective case . The case of nouns is
shown by word order not by inflection But some pronouns are inflected to show
case . The table shows the use of pronouns instead of nouns in the subjective
case and the objective case .
Subject
Predicate
Verb Object
The boy
hit the dog .
He it
.
The dog
bit the boy .
It him .
The girl read the books .
She them .
The books pleased the girl .
They her
There is one other occasion when the objective form of the pronoun
is used : this is when a pronoun is governed by a preposition .
Examples
I spoke to him .
I had a letter from her.
The pronouns ‘him’ and ‘her’ in the objective case are governed
respectively by the prepositions ‘to’ and ‘from’ .
The only pronouns that have different forms for nominative and
objective case are six .
Nominative
|
Objective
|
Nominative
|
Objective
|
I
|
me
|
we
|
us
|
he
|
him
|
they
|
them
|
she
|
her
|
who
|
whom
|
In literary or in informal English , when the pronoun comes after
verb ‘to be’ , the nominative form of the pronoun is used .
Example
It was I ( he , she , we , etc. ) who did this .
In informal colloquial English the objective form is frequently
used .
Example
That’s her ( him , us , etc. )
It’s all right ; it’s only me .
In sentences where the pronoun is felt to be the subject of a verb
, the nominative form would always be used .
Examples
It was he who told me about it .
It was I who did it .
Personal
Pronouns .
A personal pronoun refers to a specific person , place , thing or
idea by indicating the person speaking ( the first person ) , the person or
people being spoken to ( the second person ) or any other person , place ,
thing or idea being talked about ( the third person ) . Personal pronouns
express number – that is , they are either singular or plural .
Personal Pronoun
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
First Person
|
I , me
|
we , us
|
Second Person
|
you
|
you
|
Third Person
|
he , him , she , her , it
|
they , them
|
Examples
First Person We will keep the pup with
us . ( we and us refer to the people speaking )
Second Person You may use the
spell-checking program . ( you refers to the person or people being addressed )
Third Person They accomplished all the
tasks assigned to them . ( they and them refer to persons being discussed )
Notes
On The Personal Pronouns .
First Person “I” / “we”
It is a convention for a newspaper editor or writer of leading
articles in a newspaper , perhaps from modesty and a desire not to sound
egotistical or perhaps because he feels that he is speaking not only for
himself but for the whole board of management of the paper to use the plural
‘we’ ( the Editorial we ) when giving his opinion .
Example
We believe that the government has made a profound mistake in
imposing this tax .
In the same way , formal Royal Proclamation use the ‘Royal we’ .
Example
We , George 111 , King of England .
In very colloquial English ,’us’ is sometimes used for ‘me’ ,
especially after an imperative .
Examples
Let’s have a look . ( meaning let me have a look )
Tell us ( = tell me ) what he said .
Second Person “Thou” , “thee” , “ye”
The are archaic and are rarely used n modern English except in
poetry .
Third
Person .
Third person singular pronouns also express gender .
1- ]‘He , ‘him’ can be used instead of singular masculine nouns .
2- ]‘She’ , ‘her’ can be used instead of singular feminine nouns .
3- ]‘It’ can be used instead of singular neuter nouns .
4- ] ‘They’ , ‘them’ can be used instead of all masculine ,
feminine or, neuter plural nouns .
5- ] ‘He’ , ‘his’ / ‘she’ , ‘her’ can be used for inanimate objects
. ‘She’ ‘her’ is sometimes used for inanimate objects , especially ships ,
motor-cars , locomotives , aircraft , etc. to express affection or familiarity
. Countries and even cities , especially in rather formal or rhetorical speech
are sometimes made feminine .
Examples
The owner of the car in the petrol station said ,”Fill her
up , please !
Thar’s the Queen’s yacht , Britannia ; she is a
beautiful ship .
England has done what she promised to do .
Oxford taught me as much Latin and Greek as she could
. ( John Ruskin )
6- ] An animal can be referred to by using the feminine or
masculine ‘he’ ,’his / ‘she’ , ‘her’ instead of the neuter ‘it’ to express
affection or familiarity or to distinguish sex .
Examples
He-goat / she-goat is a lovely animal when he / she frisks with
‘his’ / ‘her’ kids .
The dog The cat / is our pet ; ‘he’ / ‘she’ is fed twice a day .
7- ] A baby can be referred to as ‘it’ – but preferably not in the
hearing of its fond parents .
Examples
The new-born baby is breast-fed . He ( a boy ) / She ( a girl ) is
often asleep . His / Her mother keeps ‘him’ / ‘her’ warm . ( not ‘it’ / ‘its’ )
It .
1-] The singular pronoun ‘it’ is generally applied to things and
not to people .
2- ] ‘It’ is often used to identify an unknown person . Then , once
this has been done , ‘he’ / ‘she’ would be used .
Example
Someone was moving stealthily about the room ; it was a burglar . As
we watched , he went to the safe and tried to open it .
3- ] ‘It’ is used as a ‘formal’ subject with verbs concerning weather
condition .
Examples
It is raining / snowing / freezing .
It is very warm / cold / wet .
It was a bitterly cold night and at ten o’clock it began to blow a
gale .
4- ] ‘It’ is also used with expressions of time and measurement .
Examples
What time is it ?
It is half past two .
It is 50 miles to Cairo .
It is a long way school .
It is a long distance to Luxor .
5- ] ‘It’ is used with other impersonal statements .
Example
It says here that Shakespeare’s plays were written by Bacon .
6- ] ‘It’ is used as a formal subject or object in other
constructions , the real subject or object usually following as an infinitive
or a subordinate clause .
Examples
It is easy enough to talk .
It was quite plain that he didn’t want to come .
I took it for granted that you would stay with us .
I find it difficult to believe that .
7- ] It may in sentences beginning : ‘It is’ or ‘It was’ , precede
the real subject and a relative clause . This construction can be used to give
special emphasis to the real subject .
Examples
It was the training that he had as a young man that made him such a
good engineer.
It was his mother , not his father , who said that .
8- ] ‘It’ is used idiomatically in other sentences or phrases
(usually colloquial or slang ) where it seems to have very little specific
meaning .
Examples
When the thieves saw the policeman coming , they all ran for it .
If the teacher sees you doing that , you’ll catch it .
Hang it all , we can’t wait all day for him .
If you go camping you’ll have to rough it .
When I see him , I’ll have it out with him .
I’ll let him have it , hot and strong .
You are fairly going it ; you’ve eaten nearly the whole box of
chocolate .
We’ll make a day of it .
9- ] ‘It’ can stand for a whole sentence .
Example
You have saved my life ; I will never forget it .
He is trying to win a scholarship to Oxford ; he won’t find it easy
.
One
1- ] ‘One’ is , of course a numeral .
Example
There was only one boy there .
2- ] Like all the numerals can be used as a pronoun .
Examples
One cannot do the work of twenty .
One of your brothers came to see me today .
- The plural of ‘one’ with this usage is ‘some’ .
Examples
Take one of these chocolates . ( singular )
Take some of these chocolates .
Other
Uses of ‘One’
3-] It is used to stand for ‘people’ or ‘I’ or any person in my
position . It can be a subject or an object . It has the possessive form
‘one’s’ and the reflexive ‘oneself’ . It is followed by a third person singular
verb .
Examples
One can only do one’s best .
One cannot be too careful in matters like this .
The South Pole Expedition film gives one a good idea of the
hardships the men endured .
I don’t think one should overwork oneself .
4- ] It is generally felt that the use of ‘one’ too often in a
sentence is stylistically clumsy .
Example
When one is given one’s choice of courses of action , any of which
would be to one’s disadvantage , one often has a difficulty in deciding what
one ought to do .
The attempt to avoid this awkwardness may , unless care is taken ,
lead to such incorrect sentences .
Example
When one is given his choice of courses of action , any of which
would be to his disadvantage , they often have difficulty in deciding what they
ought to do .
It is preferable to use forms like that .
Example
When someone is given his choice of courses of action , any of
which would be to his disadvantage , he often has difficulty in deciding what
he ought to do .
5- ] It may have a general indefinite meaning of ‘a person’ .
Examples
You are the first one who has ever explained this clearly .
He is not one to be easily frightened .
Pretest
.
Identifying the
Correct Pronoun .
For each sentence , write the correct pronoun from the choices in
parentheses .
1- ] The charging bull frightened Sami and ( I , me } .
2- ] Mother and ( they , them ) went to the political rally .
3- ] ( Who , Whom ) do you think threw the cake in the trash by
mistake ?
4- ] Few of the men leave town for ( his , their ) vacations .
5- ] ( Who’s , Whose ) skis did you borrow ?
6- ] I was disappointed at ( you , your ) not sharing your idea
with me .
7- ] ( We , Us ) people whose names begin with B usually end up in
the front of the room .
8- ] The last two students to finish the test , Ali and ( I , me )
got the best grades on it .
9- ] Everyone should keep ( his or her , their ) locker clean .
10- ] The coach knows that she can depend on ( we , us ) players to
be at practice .
11- ] She swims better than ( he , him ) .
12- ) ( We , Us ) Americans believe in freedom of speech for every
person .
13- ] Class rings will be delivered to ( whoever , whomever )
ordered them .
14- ] ( Them , Their ) laughing disturbed those who were asleep .
15- ] Between you and ( I , me ) I think Mohamad is going to be
class president .
16- ] You may have as your best man ( whoever , whomever ) you
chooses .
17- ] My sister participates in more outdoor activities than ( I ,
me ) .
18- ] Who did he say had won the tennis championship – ( her , she
) or Angela ?
19- ] The person whom you are thinking of is probably ( she , her )
.
20 ] Miss Noha seems to think that you are more capable than ( I ,
me ) .
21-- ] That is ( he , him ) in the phone booth . Do you know him ?
23- ] I dished ( me , myself ) a huge bowl of chocolate ice-cream .
24- ] His dad gets upset over ( him , his ) playing his stereo so
loudly .
25- ] The English class give ( its , their ) speeches to the
student body today .
One
As Pronoun Or Adjective .
1- ] ‘One’ is used with something of its meaning as a numeral when
contrasted with other or another .
Examples
There are two choices open to you . You must take either the one or
the other . [ Pronoun ]
The two twins are so much alike that I cannot tell the one from the
other . [ Pronoun ]
One evening we went to the theater , another evening we went
dancing .
2- ] In the following cases ‘one’ has lost its numerical meaning
and is used to express some vague time .
Examples
He always hopes that ‘one’ day he will win a prize . [ adjective }
‘One’ of these days I will go and see him . [ Pronoun ]
I must have met him at ‘one’ time or another . [ Adjective ]
3- ] Occasionally ‘one’ has the meaning ‘only’ , ‘single’ . With
this meaning ‘one’ is always an adjective .
Examples
The ‘one’ man who could have saved the situation was dead .
no ‘one’ woman could run a big house like that singlehanded .
The ‘one’ thing that could make Charles I dangerous – was a violent
death . [ Macaulay ]
The
Prop-Word ‘One’ .
1- ] In some constructions adjectives ( including the definite
article ) cannot stand alone and need the prop-word ‘one ‘ to support them .
This prop-word refers to some previous noun . If the prop-word were not
used , the noun would have to be
repeated , and for stylistic reasons we want to avoid this. It is only countable
nouns that ‘one’ can replace in this way .
Examples
Ahmad’s old car is a good ‘one’ ; it is much better than our new
‘one’ .
There was an old man and a young ‘one’ there .
I like a strong cup of tea better than a weak ‘one’ .
2- ] - The plural of ‘one’ with this usage is ‘ones’ .
Examples
I prefer red roses to white ‘ones’ [ one used in the plural ]
There was a mother bird in the nest and there were four young
‘ones’ .
3- ] ‘One’ can be a prop-word with the definite article .
Examples
Which girl is Suzan Nasser ? – The ‘one’ in the green dress .
Which biscuits do you like best ? – The ‘ones’ with chocolate on
them .
4- ] ‘One’ is not generally used with ‘own’ .
Example
I cannot write properly with your pen ; I’d rather use my own ( Not
: my own one )
5- ] ‘Ones’ is never used after a cardinal numeral .
Example
You have three books ; I have only two . [ Not : two ones ]
Other
Idiomatic Uses of ‘One’ .
Examples
He can go or he can stay ; it’s all ‘one’ to me . [ = it makes no
difference ]
He was a man that was liked by ‘one’ and all . [ = everybody ]
Possessive
Pronouns .
1- ] Possessive adjectives can be used only before a noun or the
prop-word ‘one’ . The possessive pronoun , however , may stand alone . Here is
a list of the possessive adjectives and the corresponding possessive pronouns .
Possessive
Adjective
|
Possessive
Pronoun
|
That is my book .
|
That book is mine .
|
That is your book .
|
That book is yours .
|
That is his book .
|
That book is his .
|
That is her book .
|
That book is hers .
|
That is our book .
|
That book is ours .
|
That is their book .
|
That book is theirs .
|
Other Examples
Ours is the only
garden in the lane that has oak trees in it .
Their house is older than yours .
He took the bone from his dog and gave it to hers .
I lend my books gladly to my friends and to yours .
Today we went to our car ; tomorrow we are going in theirs .
‘Who steals my purse steals trash ; ‘tis something , nothing ;
‘T’ was mine . ‘tis
his , and has been slave to thousands .’ [ Shakespeare , Othello ]
2- ] The possessive pronoun ‘its’ is very rarely used , but it
could be used in such a sentence as .
Example
The cherry tree gives its share of color to the garden , and the
lilac tree gives its .
History has its lessons and fiction has its .
3- ] The possessive pronouns are used in such phrases as .
My best wishes to you and yours ( = your family ) from me and mine ( =
my family )
and in the conventional ending to letters .
Yours sincerely / truly / faithfully .
The
Double Possessive .
There is another pattern used with the possessive pronouns :
of + possessive
pronoun
Examples
He is a friend of mine . [ not a friend of me ]
It was no fault of yours that we mistook the way .
I gave him some plants of mine in exchange for some of his
.
The
Demonstrative Pronouns .
1- ] The demonstrative adjectives , ‘this’ , ‘that’ and their
plurals ‘ these’ , ‘those’ used with nouns .
Examples
I borrowed this car for a trip .
That book on the shelve there is interesting .
These dresses are lovely and expensive , but those ones at the
corner are cheap .
If the words ‘this’ , ‘that’ , ‘these’ , ‘those’ are used without
the noun , they are ‘demonstrative pronouns’ .
Examples
‘This is what I want you to do .’
‘Well ,that’s exactly what I did.’
This is my brother ; and these are my two sisters .
Compare Chopin’s waltzes with those of today .
2- ] The demonstrative pronouns besides taking the place of nouns ,
suggest the idea of a position with regard to the speaker : ‘This’ and ‘these’
being nearer in space or time , but ‘that’
and ‘those’ being more distant .
Examples
There is this seat here , near me , or there is that one
in the fourth row . Which will you have , this or that ?
That is what I thought last year , this is what I think now .
3- ] ‘The former’ and ‘the latter’ may be regarded as
demonstrative pronouns .
Example
The orchestra played two Beethoven Symphonies , the Third and the
Fifth ; the former was played magnificently ; the latter was not
so well done .
Such
.
‘Such’ is a demonstrative pronoun or a demonstrative adjective .
1- ] ‘Such’ is a demonstrative adjective with ‘ such’ + adjective or ‘ such a + adjective ’ .
When the indefinite article is used with ‘such’ , the
article comes after , not before ‘such’ .
Examples
I have had such a busy morning .
You shouldn’t say such things .
I never saw such wonderful stained glass as that at Chartres .
They are such clever people .
Don’t be in such a hurry .
It’s difficult to work indoors on such a lovely day .
2- ] ‘Such’ is used as a demonstrative pronoun in ‘as such’
and ‘such as’
Examples
Mohamad Salah is the captain of the team , and , as such , must
decide who is to shoot the penalty .
His carelessness is such as to make it unlikely that he will pass
the examination .
Such is life !
- ‘Such as’ has the meaning ‘for example’ .
Example
They export a lot of fruit , such as oranges , lemons , etc.
3- ] ‘Such as’ , with some part of the verb ‘to be’ , is
sometimes used with a depreciatory , contemptuous or apologetic implication .
Examples
He gave me his help , such as it was . [ meaning ‘but it wasn’t of
much use’ ]
I expect his friends , such as they are , will be at the party .
My services , such as they are , are entirely at your disposal .
Reflexive
And Emphasizing Pronouns ( Intensive Pronouns ) .
The reflexive or ‘self pronouns’ are formed by adding ‘-self’[
plural –selves ] to the possessive adjectives of the first and second
person , and to the objective case form of the personal pronouns of the third
person .
1st person
2 nd person
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
myself
yourself ( archaic thyself )
himself -
herself -
itself -
oneself
|
ourselves
yourselves
- themselves
|
1 - ]These pronouns have two functions . They can be :
1- ] Reflexive
2- ] Emphasizing .
A reflexive pronoun indicates that the action expressed by the verb
passes from the subject back again to the subject and not to any other person
or thing . In other words the person denoted by the subject and the person
denoted by the object are identical .
Examples
I am teaching myself Latin .
He shaves himself every morning .
The visitors helped themselves to the cakes .
She saw herself in the looking-glass .
One should try to see oneself as others see one .
It’s a pity we can’t see ourselves as others see us .
There is so much noise I can hardly hear myself speak .
Make yourselves at home .
The climate makes the English so dirty that they have to be
perpetually washing themselves .
[ Shaw , Arms and the Man ]
2- ] The reflexive pronoun can be :
1- ] a direct object as in most of the examples above .
2- ] an indirect object .
Examples
You have given yourselves a great deal of work .
I told myself there
was nothing to be afraid of .
He cooked himself a
good meal .
She bought herself a new hat .
3- ] If the reflexive is part of the predicate of the verb ‘to be’
, it always has a strong stress .
Examples
If he has a holiday at the seaside he will soon be himself .
Ah , that’s better . You are yourself again .
4- ] The reflexive pronoun can be used after a preposition that
follow verbs .
Examples
She looked at herself in the looking-glass .
What have you to say for yourself ?
I want a little time to myself .
She loves me for myself , not for my money .
He ought to be ashamed of himself .
Speak for yourself .
This is strictly between ourselves .
Nader is very pleased with himself .
He works for himself , not for an employer .
5- ] If there is no doubt about the identity of the person denoted
by the pronoun , the simple , not the reflexive form of the pronoun is used
after a preposition . The reflexive is not used after prepositions .
Examples
He took food for the day with him
[ not himself ] .
She shut the door behind her .
We have the whole day before us .
He put the thought from him .
They stood on the cliff looking about them .
6- ] The reflexive pronoun is sometimes used instead of the
ordinary personal pronoun for added clearness of meaning .
Examples
She suspected that they recognized her sister but not herself .
7- ] The reflexive pronoun , especially ‘myself’ is occasionally
used where the ordinary personal pronoun would also be possible .
Examples
My brother is as old as myself .
That argument is repugnant to a lawyer like myself .
No one realizes that more than myself .
‘Coleridge and myself walked back to Nether Stowey that evening .’
[ Hazlitt ]
Whether the enemy defeats us or not depends upon ourselves . [ the
reflexive is emphasizing ]
Did anyone see him besides myself ? [ the reflexive is emphasizing
]
Verbs
Used Reflexively .
1- ] A few verbs are practically always used reflexively .
Examples
I pride myself on always having a tidy garden .
He availed himself of the opportunity to speak to her .
All the students absented themselves from the class .
2- ] Some verbs are reflexive in certain senses .
Examples
I hope the children will behave themselves .
They acquitted themselves well .
I hope you will enjoy yourself at the party .
He applied himself to the task of organizing the finances of the
company .
- The verbs ‘acquit’ , ‘enjoy’ , ‘behave’ and ‘apply’ can be used
non-reflexively .
Examples
The judge acquitted the prisoner .
I enjoyed the concert very much .
He applied a hot poultice to the sore foot .
The children behaved very well .
3- ] Occasionally the reflexive pronoun is used in a reciprocal
sense .
Example
They were busy arguing among themselves . [ = with each other ]
The
Emphasizing Reflexive Pronouns .
1- ] The reflexive pronouns have exactly the same form but their
function is different . They are always strongly stressed and they are used for
the sake of emphasis ; generally to point out a contrast .
Example
You yourself ( i.e. ‘you and not anyone else ) told me the story .
2- ] The emphasizing pronoun can be like the sentence above ] after
the subject or the word it stand for ] , but it is usually placed a the end of
the sentence .
Examples
I saw him do it [ myself ] .
The Duke piloted the plane [ himself ] .
Never leave to others what you ought to do [ yourself ] .
In these sentences and other similar sentences the person denoted
by the subject and the person denoted by the object are not identical . The
emphasizing pronouns [ but not the reflexive ones ] could be omitted without
destroying the sense of the sentence .
3- ]Sometimes emphasizing pronouns have the meaning ‘alone’ or
‘without help’ , in which case they generally have ‘by’ with them.
examples
This is a machine that works by itself
The little girl traveled from London to New York by herself .
- ‘All’ can be used with this construction as an
intensifying word .
Example
Don’t you feel lonely living here all by yourself .
- The meaning ‘without help’ can be suggested without ‘by’ .
Examples
You can’t do all the work yourself in a garden as big as this .
He tried to move the piano into the other room himself , but
couldn’t manage it .
4- ] The reflexive is used for emphasizing ability .
Example
Shakespeare himself [ = even Shakespeare ] never wrote a better
line than that .
It was a portrait that Reynolds himself [ = no less a painter than
Reynolds ] might have painted .
Interrogative
Pronouns .
1- ]The interrogative pronouns are ‘who’ , ‘whom’ , ‘whose’ ,
‘which’ , ‘what’ . They are used in forming questions and they always precede
the verb .
Examples
Who broke that window ?
Which do you prefer , meat or fish ?
What have you done ?
Whose are these books ?
Who(m) did you see ?
The interrogative pronouns are invariable for gender and number .
So the answer to the questions may be masculine or feminine , may be singular
or plural .
2- ] If we wish to make the number of ‘which’ clear , the
interrogative adjective with ‘on’ or ‘ones’ must be used .
Examples
Here are some apples ; which one would you like ? [ singular ]
Here are some apples ; which ones would you like ?
3- ] The interrogative pronoun can introduce a direct question or
an indirect one .
Examples
What happened after that ? [ direct ]
He asked me what had happened after that . [ indirect ]
Who is going to the party ? [ direct ]
He asked me who was going to the party . [ indirect ]
Who
& Whom .
1- ] ‘Who’ is used only for persons . It may be singular or
plural and may be used to stand for a masculine noun or a feminine one .
Examples
Who broke the window ? – Alan did .
Who can cook well ? - Salwa can .
2- ] ‘Who’ is the nominative form ; the objective form is ‘whom’.
Examples
Who(m) did you see ?
I saw my friend Adel .
To whom did you give the book ? / Who(m) did you give the book to ?
3- ] ‘Whom’ is the ‘literary’ form and is preferred in
writing . In conversation it is generally replaced by ‘who’ unless it
immediately follows a preposition .
Examples
Whom did you see yesterday ? [ writing ]
Who did you see yesterday ? [ conversation ]
To whom did you write ? [ not to who ]
4- ] Note the difference in construction between the use of ‘him’
and ‘who(m) as indirect objects . With who(m) the preposition is always
necessary , with ‘him’ it may be omitted .
Examples
To whom did they give the prize ?
Who(m) did they give the prize to ?
They gave him the prize .
Whose
.
‘Whose’ is the possessive form of the interrogative pronouns
.
Examples
Whose are these gloves ?
Whose gloves are these >
Whose is this umbrella ?
Whose umbrella is this ?
What
.
1- ]‘What’ is generally used for things . It may be singular
or plural , subject or object .
Examples
What is this strange object ?
What are these strange objects ?
What is his name / address / telephone number ?
2- ] ‘What’ can stand for an activity , and in this case the
answer will be usually a form of a verb .
Examples
What are you doing ?
I am cleaning the car .
What is that thing for ?
It is for punching holes in paper .
What have you done ?
I have knocked the vase off the table .
3- ] ‘What’ is used also to ask for a person’s profession ,
etc. not identity , in this case ‘who’ is used .
Examples
What is that man talking to your father ?
He is a member of parliament / a lawyer , etc.
Who is that man talking to your father ?
He is Mr. Ahmad .
I don’t know ‘who’ or ‘what’ he is ; and I don’t care .
4- ] The construction ‘ What --------- like?’ is used for description and detailing .
Examples
What is he like ?
He is tall , dark and handsome .
What is he like as a pianist ?
Oh , he’s not very good .
What is his work like ? It is quite good.
What does a monkey look like ?
A monkey is an animal with a long tail , etc.
Which
‘Which’ as an interrogative pronoun is used for things and persons ,
singular or plural , subject or object . It has no possessive case .
Examples
Which is the largest country in size ?
Which are the apples do you like best ?
Which is the person killed the woman ?
Which are the schools near to our house ?
What
and Which
1- ] ‘What’ is used when we make a selection from a more or
less unlimited number .
‘Which’ is used to present a choice from a
limited number . This choice with ‘which’ is usually made more explicit
by ‘which of’ .
Examples
Which of you boys can’t do this exercise ?
Which will you have , tea or coffee ? What are you taking in your
examination?
I am taking English , French and German .
Which of them is your best subject ?
English .
What would you like to study in next year’s literature course ?
A Shakespeare play .
Very good ; which would you like ?
Who
And Which
‘Who’ is used if we make a wide
selection .
‘Which’ is used if there is a certain number .
Examples
Who would like to come for a game of football ?
Which of you would like to come for a game of football ?
In the first example ‘Who’ the speaker is prepared to take all who
wish to come ; in the second example ‘Which’ he is only prepared to take a
certain number .
Interrogatives
[ Interrogative Adjectives ] .
The interrogative adjectives corresponding to the interrogative
pronouns are ‘whose’ , ‘what’ , ‘which’ . Like all adjectives they are
invariable . They can be used for persons [ masculine or feminine ] or for
things . They can be part of the subject or of the object and can be followed by
a singular verb or a plural one .
Example
Whose
Whose car is that ?
Whose little boy [ Whose little girl ] are you ?
Whose house did you like ?
What
What places did you see ?
What class does Professor Magdi take ?
What assistants has he ?
What man or woman could have done more ?
What work have you done ?
- Note In questions that ask about the nature of a thing or
person we generally use ‘What kind of’
‘What sort of?’
Examples
What kind of chocolates do you like best ?
What sort of a woman is she ?
Which
Which boy (girl) has / Which boys (girls) have / answered correctly
all the questions .
Which eye was injured , his right or his left ?
Which apples did you grow yourself ?
What
And Which ( Interrogative Adjectives )
‘What’ with interrogative adjectives is used when we make a
selection from a more or less unlimited number .
‘Which’ with interrogative adjectives is used to present a choice from a
limited number .
Examples
What subjects are you taking in your examination ?
English , French and German .
What play would you like to study next term ?
Which subject is your best one ?
English .
What play would you like to study next term ?
One of Shaw’s .
Very good ; which play would you like ?
Emphatic
Forms .
‘Ever’ is added to ‘what’ , ‘who’ or
‘which’ usually to express more emphatically a feeling of surprise ,
anger , indignation , etc.
Examples
Who ever can be calling at the time of night ?
Who ever heard of such a silly idea ?
What ever were you thinking of to suggest such a plan ?
He gets up at five o’clock every morning . What ever for ?
The word ‘ever’ here has a meaning like ‘on earth’ , ‘in the
world’
Idiomatic
Expressions .
Some idiomatic expressions with ‘who’ , ‘which’ , ‘what’ [ not necessarily as interrogatives ] are :
Examples
What about a
cup of tea / something to eat , etc. ? [ Suggestion = would you like / shall we
have ---- ]
Oh ! There’s Mr. What’s his name ? - said when you cannot remember the name .
It’s a what-do-you-call-it
What with high prices , high taxation and low wages he’s very badly
off .
It was so dark I couldn’t tell who was who .
The two twins are so alike I can’t tell which is which ( or who is
who )
I don’t know anyone at the party ; you must tell me who’s who .
You’ll find his name in Who’s Who .( = a reference book of
contemporary biography ) .
He’s a clever fellow ; he knows what’s what ( = what is good ,
useful , profitable , etc. from what is not ) .
another either neither other
anybody everybody no one somebody
Always Singular
anything everything nothing something
each much one
Always Plural both few many others several
Singular or
Plural all any enough
most none some
1- ] Many of these words can also be used adjectivally as
determinatives .
Examples
Have you any matches . [ adjective ]
Ask Ahmad if he has any .[ pronoun ]
I wish I had some red roses . [ adjective ]
I must try to grow some next year . [ pronoun ]
The notice said : ‘All boys must be in school by 8 o/clock . [
adjective ]
But all were not there at eight o’clock . [ pronoun ]
We all like Mr. Mohamad very much . [ pronoun ]
He told me a lot of other things that I can’t remember now . [
adjective ]
Which one are you going to choose , that one or the other ?[ pronoun
]
At the party each child was given an orange and a bag of sweets . [
adjective ]
Each of them was also given a present from their grandfather .
Gender-Neutral
Agreement With Indefinite Pronoun Antecedents .
2- ] An indefinite pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number
. Use a singular personal pronoun when the antecedent is a singular indefinite
pronoun . Use a plural personal pronoun when the antecedent is a plural
indefinite pronoun .
Examples
Each of the women had to put her suitcase in storage .
One of the men brought his antique abacus .
Many of the dentists have their own X-ray equipment .
Note that the plural nouns in the prepositional phrases –‘of the
women’ , ‘of the men’ do not affect the number of the personal pronouns . ‘Her’
and ‘his’ are singular .
3- ] When no gender is specified , use gender-neutral wording [ his
/ her ]
Example
Everyone must bring his or her own lunch .
4- ] If you find the preceding sentence a bit awkward , the best
solution may be to reword the sentence . You might use a plural indefinite
pronoun or a suitable noun [ such as people ] to replace the singular
indefinite pronoun . You might even eliminate the personal pronoun entirely .
Examples
All must bring their own lunches .
People must bring their own lunches .
Everyone must bring a lunch . [ no pronoun ]
Practice
Rewrite each sentence in three ways , using gender-neutral language
.
Example Each of the performers makes his costume .
Each of the performers makes his or her costume .
All of the performers make their costume .
Each of the performers makes a costume .
1- ] Each of the seniors will receive his diploma .
2- ] Everyone must bake his own cake .
3- ] Everybody is entitled to his opinion .
4- ] Anyone who does not do his homework will not pass the class .
5- ] Everyone must pay his taxes .
Clear
Pronoun Reference .
Make sure that the antecedent of a pronoun is clearly stated . Make
sure that a pronoun cannot possibly refer to more than one antecedent .
Vague
Pronoun Reference .
To avoid a vague pronoun reference , do not use the pronoun ‘this’
, ‘that’ , ‘which’ , ‘it’ , ‘any’ , ‘or
‘one’ without a clearly stated antecedent .
Examples
Vague Gwendolyn Brooks is
a creative and gifted writer , and this is apparent from her poetry .
[ What is apparent from Brooks’s poetry ? Her talent is apparent ,
but talent is not specifically mentioned in the sentence ]
Clear Gwendolyn Brooks is
a creative and gifted writer , and her talent is apparent from her poetry .
Vague In 1906 many
buildings in San Francisco burned , which was caused by the great earthquake of
April 18 .
[ What was caused by the earthquake ? A fire was caused , but the
word fire does not appear in the sentence ]
Clear In 1906 a fire ,
which was caused by the great earthquake of April 18 , burned many buildings in
San Francisco .
Practice
Clear Pronoun
Reference .
Rewrite each item , replacing vague pronouns with specific words .
1- ]Salah Phoned Mohamad every night for a week , but it was always
busy .
2- ] I hear that Taher paints beautifully , but he’ll never show me
any .
3- ] The streets in my neighborhood were flooded , which was caused
by a hurricane .
4- ] I saw the local ballet company perform Swan Lake last
night , it was great !
5- ] My friend Hassan is a fantastic baker , and he often brings
one for a snake .
Unclear
And Indefinite Pronoun Reference .
1- ] If a pronoun seems to refer to more than one antecedent ,
either reword the sentence to make the antecedent clear or eliminate the
pronoun .
Example
Unclear antecedent When
Suzan told Dalila not to drive to school again , she was upset .
[ Which word is the antecedent of she ? Is Suzan upset or Dalila ?
]
Clear antecedent Suzan
was upset when she told Dalila not to drive to school again .
No pronoun When Suzan told Dalila not to drive to
school again , Suzan was upset .
2- ] The pronouns ‘it’ , ‘you’ , ‘and ‘they’ should not be used as
if they were indefinite pronouns . Instead , you should name the performer of
the action . In some cases , you may be able to reword the sentence in such a
way that you do not name the performer of the action and you do not use a
pronoun .
Examples
indefinite In college you
learn to be independent .
clear In college
students learn to be independent .
indefinite In some
neighborhoods , they pick up the garbage twice a week .
clear In some
neighborhoods , the garbage is picked up twice a week .
indefinite In Healthy
Teen magazine , it suggests eating more than four servings of vegetables each
day .
clear Healthy Teen magazine suggests eating
more than four servings of vegetables each day .
Practice
Correcting
Unclear and Indefinite Pronoun Reference .
Rewrite each sentence , correcting any unclear or indefinite pronoun
reference .
Example
In some parts of Mexico , you retire to your room for a siesta , or
a short rest .
Answer : In some parts of Mexico , people retire to their rooms for
a siesta , or a short rest .
1- ] As Susan was talking to Sarah , she got another phone call .
2- ] They say the temperature will reach ninety degrees today .
3- ] My dad snapped at Nasser ; he was just goofing around .
4- ] In preschool you learn to play nicely with others .
5- ] Both the president and his aide agreed that he would attend
the meeting of world leaders .
Notes
On Some Of The Indefinite Pronouns And Adjectives .
Neither &
Either .
1- ]‘Either’ means ‘one of the other of two’ ; ‘neither’ means
‘not this and not the other’ ; it is a rejection of both or two .
Both ‘either’ and ‘neither’ can be distributive adjectives or
distributive pronouns . Both are singular in number .
Examples
Either of these machines is suitable for the work you want done .
Neither of my friends has come yet .
There is a train at 11.30 and one at 12.30 : either train will get
you to London in time for the meeting . [adjective ]
If you don’t want either of those , there is another one at 10.30 .
[ pronoun ]
I have traveled by the 11.30 train and the 12.30 and neither train
had a restaurant car . [ adjective ]
I am very surprised that neither of them had a restaurant car . [
pronoun ]
2- ] ‘Either’ can occasionally mean ‘one and the other of
two’ .
Examples
He came down the road with a girl on either arm .
‘On either side the river , lie
Long fields of barley and of rye .’ [ Tennyson ]
All
‘All’ can be used as pronoun or as adjective in the singular or the
plural . It is used in the singular .
1- ] as a pronoun with the meaning of ‘everything’ .
Examples
When he saw his troops retreat , the general cried , ‘All is lost.’
‘All’s well that ends well .
all is not gold that glitters .
2- ] as an adjective with the meaning ‘the whole of’ .
Examples
All the money is spent .
All the world has heard of his name .
He worked hard all the time he was here .
He spent all last week in London .
3- ] ‘All’ is used in the plural as an adjective or as a
pronoun .
Examples
All the pupils were present . [ adjective ]
All are welcome . [ pronoun ]
I don’t like to speak before all these people [ adjective ]
He has written six novels and all of them are good . [ pronoun ]
4- ] When the subject is a noun ,’all’ can precede it or follow it
.
Examples
All the students agreed that the concert was good .
The students all agreed that the concert was good .
5- ] If the subject is a pronoun
, ‘all’ generally follows it .
Example
They all [ but not ‘all they’ ] agreed that the concert was good .
All
And Every .
1- ] ‘All’ often has the meaning of ‘every’ .
The constructions are :
all + plural verb / every + singular verb
Examples
all boys like doing .
Thar’s the sort of job that
every boy likes doing .
all the windows
The explosion broke in the
street .
every window
All the people were cheering loudly .
Everybody was cheering loudly .
2- ] The distinction between ‘all’ and ‘every’ can be seen in these two sentences .
Example
All the boys were present .
Every boy was present .
In the first sentence we consider the boys in a mass . In the
second sentence we are thinking of the many individual boys that make up the
mass .
3- ] In addition to being a pronoun and an adjective ,’all’
is used adverbially .
Examples
His face was all covered with blood .
If you can finish the work by Wednesday instead of Thursday , that
will be all the better .
Did you catch your train all right ?
If it is all the same to you , I’d rather go by car than by train .
Each
, Every ( -one , -body ) .
1- ] ‘Each’ and ‘every’ also express totality and are
usually called distributives .
‘Each’ can be a pronoun or a determinative adjective .
‘Every’ can only be an adjective ; its pronominal forms are ‘everyone’
, ‘everybody’ , ‘everything’ . ’Every’ can be used only when the total
number exceeds two .
‘Each’ can be used when the total number referred to is two or more .
Examples
‘Each’ as a pronoun .
Each must do his best .
They each signed the paper .
Mr. Mohamad came to the school with a bag of books , and gave the
boys two each .
Each of the boys has done his work .
‘Each’ as an adjective .
Each man must do his best .
Each person signed the paper .
He gave each boy two books .
Before choosing a pen , she looked at each one in turn .
‘Every’ as an adjective
Every man must do his best .
Every person signed the paper .
He gave every boy two books .
Every one of the boys has done his work .
Every cloud has a silver lining . [ Proverb ]
Pronominal
Forms Of ‘every’ .
1- ]‘Each . ‘every’ , ‘ everyone’ , ‘everybody’ , ‘everything’ take
a singular verb .
Examples
Everyone knows that Rome is the capital of Italy .
He told everyone that he was a lord .
Everybody was disappointed that you could not come .
Everything he says is true .
Everything in the house was destroyed by fire .
2- ] The difference between ‘everyone , which can be used only for
persons , and ‘every one ‘ which can be used also to speak of things is observed
.
Examples
Everyone came to school .
She has kept every one of my letters .
Each
And Every .
1- ] There are some differences in meaning and usage between ‘each’
and ‘every’ as adjectives .
- The feeling of ‘distribution’ is stronger in ‘each’ than
in ‘every’ .’Every’ tends to gather the separate items into a whole . ‘Each’
focuses attention on items or things individually and so tends to disperse
the unity .
Examples
I visited him every day while he was in hospital .
I visited him each day while he was in hospital .
Every pupil must wear the uniform .
Each pupil must wear the uniform .
2- ] ‘Every’ has idiomatic uses . ‘Each’ cannot
replace ‘every’ in the idiomatic uses .
Examples
The cheaper paper is every bit as good as the dearer one .
……’every’ inch a king’ [ Shakespeare , ‘King Lear’ ]
He is every inch a gentleman .
You have every right to be angry .
There is every reason to think he is speaking the truth .
‘Every’ other day , ‘every’ two
days , ‘every’ now and then
Examples
I go there every other day .
It means I go on alternate days [ Monday , Wednesday , Friday ,
Sunday ]
We have a lesson on Monday , but on every other day there are no
lessons .
It means there are no lessons on all the other days .
Every other girl except me is wearing jeans .
It means all the other people [ things ] .
They visit us every other week .
It means alternate .
‘Every now and again / then = at irregular intervals , occasionally
I like to go to the park now and then .
Every now and again she went upstairs to see if the man was asleep
.
Both
‘Both’ as a pronoun or as an adjective , indicates totality , but
is applied to only two persons or things . It is only used before plural nouns
and takes a plural verb . ‘Both’ can be a pronoun or a determinative
adjective . It can be used adverbially .
‘Both’ as a pronoun
Examples
I have two brothers ; they are both engineers .
I don’t know which book is the better ; I will read both .
Which of the two girls is he in love with ? ‘Both !’
‘Both’ as an adjective
Both his legs were broken in the accident .
There are houses on both sides of the street .
Both [the] men were found guilty .
‘Both’ used adverbially .
Example
The book is both useful and amusing .
Some
[ - thing , -body , -one ]
1- ] ‘Some’ as an adjective or a pronoun is used before or
to refer to uncountable nouns and plural nouns , to express an indefinite
quantity or number .
Examples
As an adjective
He wants some money .
I have spilt some milk on the table
There are some cows in the field .
He has some apples .
As a pronoun
I didn’t have any sandwiches , so I went out to buy some .
If you have no money I will lend you some .
2- ] As an adjective or a pronoun ‘some’ is used before , or to
refer to uncountable nouns and plural nouns to suggest contrast .
As an adjective
Some people hate cats ; others dislike dogs .
I enjoy some music , but much of it bores me .
As a pronoun
Some of us agree with that statement ; some disagree .
Not all your answers were correct , some were not .
Some are born great , some achieves greatness and some have
greatness thrust upon them . [Shakespeare]
3- ] As an adjective only ‘some’ is used before singular countable
nouns with the meaning
‘a particular’ , but
unidentified person , or thing ‘[ often with derogatory meaning ] .
Examples
Some fool had left the lawn mower on the garden path , and in the
dark I fell over it .
He arrived with some old book that he had picked up at a
second-hand bookshop .
4- ] Something and some have the meaning approximately , but ‘some’
comes before a numeral .
Examples
I’ll whistle the tune for you , it goes something like this .
It happened some twenty years ago .
It will take some three or four thousand pounds to rebuild the
house .
Any
( -thing , - body , -one ) .
1- ] ‘Any’ is used emphatically and has the general meaning
‘it doesn’t matter who , which or what’.
Examples
Come any day you like .
Get me some chocolates , please ; any kind will do .
Any student can answer the question .
He is a man who will do anything for money .
You must give an excuse for not going ; any excuse will do .
I have any number of ( = a great many ) small plants in my garden ;
I will give you as many as you want .
2- ] ‘Any’ used unemphatically has the same meaning as ‘some’
.
Examples
Some kind [Any kind ] of chocolate will do .
Someone [Anyone] can take part in the race .
3- ] ‘Any’ can be
used with a singular countable or uncountable noun or a plural one .
Examples
Any sane person would have acted as you did .
Haven’t you any work to do ?
Are there any cows in the field ?
4- ] Any is used adverbially .
Examples
I am sorry to say he isn’t any better .
I couldn’t come any sooner .
In spite of your careful explanation , I don’t think he is any the
wiser .
Some
And Any .
1- ] In comparative ‘some’ is indefinite and indicate ‘a
number of’ , but ‘any’ is definite and indicate ‘all’ .
Examples
Mohamad is older than some of the other boys in his class .
= he is not the youngest , but is not the oldest [ indefinite
meaning ]
Mohamad is older than any of the other boys in his class .
= he is the oldest [
definite meaning ]
The firm does more business than some of its competitors .
= a number of , but not all
That firm does more business than any of its competitors .
= all
2- ] A general rough and ready distinction between ‘some’
and ‘any’ is that ‘some’ is used in affirmative sentences , ‘any’
in interrogative and negative sentences .
Examples
I am looking for some matches . [ affirmative ]
Have you any matches ? [ interrogative ]
I haven’t any matches . [ negative ]
There is someone in the room . [ Affirmative ]
Is there anyone in the room ? [ interrogative ]
There isn’t anyone in the room . [ negative ]
There’s something I want to ask you . [ affirmative ]
Is there anything you want to ask me ? [ interrogative ]
There isn’t anything I want to ask you . [ negative ]
3- ] A negative meaning may be conveyed by words like ‘never’ ,
‘without’ , ‘seldom’ , etc. in this case ‘any’ is used .
Examples
He never had any luck .
He worked hard but without any success .
She seldom visits any of his relatives .
He hardly got any help from his friends .
4- ] An interrogative meaning is sometimes conveyed by a
conditional clause , in this case also ‘any’
is used .
Example
It there are any good apples in the shop , bring me two kilos .
5- ] ‘Some’ as well as ‘any’ can be used in
interrogative sentences .It depends on the reply expected . If the reply
expected is ‘Yes’, we tend to use ‘some’ in the question .
Examples
Didn’t you put some matches in you pocket ?
It has the meaning : I am almost sure I saw you put some matches in
your pocket .
Or : You put some matches in your pocket , didn’t you ?
Are you expecting someone this afternoon ?
Yes .
Are you expecting anyone this afternoon ?
No .
Is someone coming this afternoon ?
Yes . [ implication : I see that preparations are being made ]
Is anyone coming this afternoon ?
No . [ I do not see an indication ]
- The same conditions apply to the adverbs ‘somewhere’ , ‘anywhere’
.
Examples
Have you seen him before somewhere ? ( You seem to recognize him )
Have you seen him anywhere ? ( You seem you do not know him )
6- ] If the question is really a request , an invitation , or a
command in the form of a question ‘some’
is used .
Examples
Will you ask someone to carry this bag for me , please ? [ request
, command ]
May I give you some more tea ? [ invitation ]
Won’t you try some of this cake ? [ invitation ]
Could you let me have some money , father ? [ request ]
No ,
Nothing , Nobody , No one , None .
1- ] The determinative ‘no’ is only used attributively and
has the meaning ‘not any .
Examples
There is no [there isn’t any ] salt on the table , and no [ there
aren’t any ] glasses .
No smoking allowed .
2- ] ‘No’ has the meaning ‘not a’ .
Example
He is no hero .
3- ] ‘Nothing’ can be replaced by not + anything / nobody [ or no one ] by not + anybody [
-one ] , except when they are the subject of the sentence .
Examples
There was nothing [ was not (wasn’t) anything ] in the shop that I
wanted to buy .
Can no one [ Can’t anyone ] answer the question ?
There’s nobody [ There isn’t anybody ] in the room .
4- ] ‘Nobody’ and ‘no one’ are used of persons . ‘None’
is used of persons and things .
Examples
No one came to the class .
There was nobody in the room .
I wanted some more coffee but there was none left .
None has come to the party .
5- ] ‘None’ is a pronoun and is equivalent to ‘not
one’ or ‘not any’ .
Examples
None of his pupils failed their examination .
How many fish did you catch ?
-‘None’ .
None so blind as those who will not see . [ Proverb ]
6- ] ‘Nobody’ , ‘nothing’ and ‘ no one’ are singular
in number and are used with a singular verb .
Examples
Nobody is here .
Nothing is worthy of trying .
No one tries to climb this dangerous cliff .
7- ] ‘None’ is used with a singular or with a plural verb .
The singular verb with ‘none’ is considered by some grammarians to be
the more correct .
Examples
None of us is perfect ; we all make mistakes .
There are none so deaf as those who will not hear . [ proverb ]
8- ] ‘None’ , ‘nothing’ , ‘nobody’ , ‘no one’ are frequently
used in ‘short answers’ .
Examples
How many of the exercises did you get right ?
None .
Who attended the meeting ?
Nobody . / No one . / None .
How much did you pay for the party ?
Nothing .
9- ] Generally speaking , the difference between ‘nothing’ and
‘none’ is that in ‘short answers’ ‘nothing’ might be the reply to
a question beginning ‘How many?’ , whereas ‘none’ might be the reply to one beginning ‘How
many?’ or ‘How much?’ . The same distinction applies to ‘nobody’ and ‘none’
.
Examples
What is on the table ? -
Nothing .
How many books are on the table ?
- None .
Who is in the dining-room ?
- Nobody ( no one ) .
How many people are in the dining-room ? - None .
How much petrol is there in the car ? - None !
10- ] ‘No’ , ‘something’ , ‘nothing’ can also be used
adverbially . ‘No’ has the peculiarity that it can be used with the
comparative form of an adjective but not with the positive ( except with
different and certain idiomatic senses of good ] or with the superlative forms
.
Examples
He is no better and is still very ill .
It is no faster to go there by train than by car .
No sooner had I let the cat out of the room than she wanted to come
in again .
He is something like what his father was at that age .
Your work is nothing ( isn’t anything ) like so good as Ali’s .
Other
, Another
1- ] ‘Other’ may be
an adjective or a pronoun . As an adjective it is invariable ; as a pronoun it
is countable and has the plural form ‘others’ . When it is used with the
indefinite article ‘an’ , they are written as one word ‘another’ . ‘The
other’ [ singular ] means ‘the second of two’ .
Examples
He held a sword in one hand and a pistol in the other .
One of my brothers is named Ahmad ; the other is named Mohamad .
When we got to that roundabout we ought to have taken the other
road .
2- ] ‘The other(s) means the remaining ( ones ) .
Examples
We got home by 6 o’clock , but the others did not get back until
about 8 o’clock .
The other guests that we had expected did not come .
3- ] ‘Other(s)’ may simply mean ‘different’ , ‘additional’ ,
‘remaining’ .
Examples
There are other ways of doing this exercise .
I have no other friend but you .
Some like milk chocolate , others prefer plain chocolate .
4- ] ‘Another’ means .
1- ] ‘an additional one’
Examples
Nader is terribly greedy ; his hostess offered him another cake ,
but he took one cake , then another and another .
Mr. Nasser has two cars , and now he has bought another.
2- ] ‘a different one’ .
Examples
The point of this pencil is broken , can you lend me another ,
please ?
On one day he will say one thing and on another day something quite
different .
Each
Other , One Another .
1- ] ‘Each other’ and ‘one anther’ are used after
transitive verbs to express reciprocity , i.e. that the feeling or action is
mutual . Some grammarians make the distinction that with ‘each other’ there
are two people concerned . While with ‘one another’ there are more
people concerned .
Examples
The two sisters love each other .
Little children love one another .
2- ] The position of the prepositions when used with ‘each other’
and ‘one another’ , the prepositions precede .
Examples .
They gave presents to each other .
They are very fond of one another .
Relative
Pronouns .
The relative pronouns are
‘who’ ( nominative ) , ‘whom’ ( objective ) , ‘ whose’ ( possessive ) , ‘which’
, ‘that’ , ‘what’ and occasionally ‘as’ and ‘but’ . They have the same forms
for singular or plural , masculine or feminine . The choice of the relative
pronoun is determined according to whether the adjective clause in which it
appears is defining or non-defining .
Who
, Whom , Whose , Which
1- ] ‘Who’ , ‘whom’ , ‘whose’ are used of persons .
Examples
The man who spoke was my brother .
He is one of the men whom I feel I can trust .
He is a man whose word is as good as his bond .
2- ] ‘Which’ as a relative pronoun is used only of things or
animals .
Examples
The current , which is very rapid , makes the river dangerous .
The dog which was lost has been found .
Note If the animal is named , it is thought of as a ‘person’ and the
pronoun ‘who’ would be used .
Example
Our dog Jack , who had been lost for two days , was found and
brought home by a policeman .
3- ] With collective nouns denoting persons ,’which’ is used if the
noun is regarded as singular , who(m) if it is regarded as plural .
Examples
The London team , which played so well last season , has done badly
this season .
The team , who are just getting their tickets , will meet on the
platform at 2.30 .
4- ] ‘Which’ is used when the antecedent is a whole sentence
.
Example
He invited us to dinner , which was very kind of him .
That
1- ] ‘That’ is invariable ( i.e. it may be nominative or
objective case , singular or plural number ) and is used for persons or things
.
Examples
Shakespeare is the greatest poet that England has ever had .
The plays that he wrote have been performed in almost every country
in the world .
They live in a house that was built in 1900 .
Have you everything that you need ?
2- ] ‘That’ ( not ‘who’ or ‘which ) is used :
1- ] After an adjective in the superlative ( including first and
last ) and after most indefinite pronouns .
Examples
Yesterday was one of the coldest days that I have ever known .
His book is the best that has ever been written on that subject ,
and yet you say this is the first time that you have heard of it .
He never says anything that is worth listening to .
All that glitters is not gold . [ proverb ]
There’s not much that can be done .
2- ] After the openings ‘It is …….’ , ‘It was……’ , etc. and the
corresponding interrogative forms .
Examples
It’s an ill wind that blows nobody good . [ proverb ]
It is the teacher that is important , not the kind of school he
teaches in .
What was it that he wanted ?
In which play of Shakespeare’s is it that Viola appears ?
Was it you that broke the window ?
3- ] When the antecedent is both a person and a thing .
Example
He talked brilliantly of the men and the books that interested him
.
3- ] ‘That’ cannot be used in non-defining clauses and it
cannot be preceded by a preposition , as ‘which or ‘whom’ . The
preposition must be at the end of the clause .
Example
Here is the car about which I told you .
Here is the car that I told you about . [ not about that I told you
]
4- ] ‘That’ can be used as a relative pronoun after the word
‘same’ .
Example
She wore the same dress that she wore at her sister’s wedding .
5- ] The usual relative pronoun after ‘same’ , and the one that is
always used after ‘such’ is ‘as’ .
Examples
I will be surprised if he does this in the same way as I do .
She wears the same kind of clothes as her sister usually does .
I never heard such stories as he tells .
‘We are such stuff as dreams are made on .’ [ Shakespeare , ‘The
Tempest’ ]
What
1- ]‘What’ is used when the antecedent is not expressed . It
is a relative pronoun and an antecedent in one word .
Example
Tell me what you want to know .
Here , ‘what’ has the general meaning of which [ the things ‘antecedent’
that (which) relative pronoun ]
2- ] ‘What’ is also used when the antecedent is a sentence
which follows ‘what’ .
Example
He is an interesting speaker , and , what is more important , he
knows his subject thoroughly .
3- ] ‘Whichever’ , ‘whatever’ , ‘whoever’ are compound
relative pronouns .
Examples
You can have whatever you want .
Take whichever you like .
She can marry who ever she chooses .
Concord
In Relative Pronouns .
1- ] The relative pronoun agree with its antecedent in number and
person but not necessarily in case .
Examples
He waved his hand to Ahmad , whom he saw buying apples in the shop
He waved his hand to Ahmad , who , he saw , was buying apples in
the shop .
In the first sentence ‘whom’ is the object of saw . In the second
sentence ‘who’ is the subject of the verb ‘was buying’ .
2- ] The number of the verb in relative clauses when ‘one’ is used
in the principal clause is a pitfall .
Examples
This is one of the most difficult questions that have been asked .
That one of the books that were given to us for study.
Ali is one of the boys who always do good work for me .
The antecedent in each case is not ‘one’ but ‘questions’ , ‘books’
, ‘boys’ , respectively .
3-] The relative pronoun
should be as close as possible to its antecedent . This will avoid ambiguity or
absurdities .
Example
After the wedding the bride and bridegroom left in a car for London
which had been given as a present by the bride’s father .
Posttest
For each sentence , write the correct pronoun from the choices in
parentheses .
1- ] It was [ she , her ] who addressed the group .
2- ] People should use [ his or her , their ] time creatively .
3- ] Morris and Edward speak Spanish much better than [ I , me ] .
4- ] [ He , Him ] and I were expected to make up a list of projects
.
5- ] Neither she nor I was annoyed by [ him , his ] taking up our
time .
6- ] [Who , Whom ] do you think was at the party yesterday ?
7- ] Everyone forgot to bring [ their , his or her ] swimming
trunks .
8- ] Each of the women had [ her , their ] own opinion about the
political candidate .
9- ] The Dallas Symphony Orchestra gives [ its , their ] last
performance of the year tonight .
10- ] People must listen carefully if [ you , they ] hope to follow
instructions .
11- ] Our group chose three new members , Salah , Nasser and [ he ,
him ] , because their interests were similar to ours .
12- ] Here is [ someones , someone’s ] textbook , is it yours ?
13- ] The school board vote tomorrow on [ its , their ] new
president .
14- ] People are talking about the island where [ you , they ] can
buy beachfront property inexpensively .
15- ] The boy [ who , whom ] delivers the paper is always on time .
16- ] He doesn’t know [ who , whom ] to trust .
17- ] Both of the politicians expressed [ his , their ] ideas well
.
18- ] Carmen dances better than [ I , me ] .
19- ] We set [ us , ourselves ] some pretty high goals .
20- ] The salesperson [ who , whom ] sold me this computer no
longer works for the store .
21- ] A party was given for the two retiring employees , [ he , and
she , him and her ] .
22- ] A man can keep [ hisself , himself ] in good physical shape
through exercise .
23- ] Both of us were unhappy about [ their , them ] leaving .
24- ] It was [ I , me ] who called around midnight last night .
25- ] When writing a letter to the editor of a newspaper , a person
should always sign [ their , his or her ] name .
Exercise
.
Combine the following pairs of sentences by means of relative
pronouns ( the words in italics in each sentence are to be replaced by the
pronoun ) :
1- ] The gentleman is my uncle . You met him yesterday .
2- ] The gentleman is my uncle . He impressed you when you
met him .
3- ] The gentleman over there is my uncle . He is ninety
years old .
4- ] The gentleman over there is my uncle . You would do well to
humor him .
5- ] The gentleman over there is my uncle . His face must be
familiar to you .
6- ] The gentleman over there is my uncle . I know you have a great
respect for him .
7- ] The gentleman is my uncle . You were introduced to him
yesterday .
8- ] In an effort to improve discipline , boys are to be ‘dissuaded
‘ from running along the corridors . This is a step in the right
direction .
9- ] The cow has disappointed us this year . It gave so much
milk last year .
10- ] Our cat , Tom , didn’t eat his fish this morning . He
is usually fond of his food .
Exercise
.
Fill in the blanks with suitable indefinite pronouns , distributive
pronouns or adjectives .
1- ] Is there ------- ink in this pot ? - No , --------------
2- ] Will you have ---------- more tea ? There’s plenty in the pot
.
3- ] You don’t want ------------ more cake , do you ? I want to
save --------- for tomorrow .
4- ] Are you doing --------------- tonight ? – No , -------------
5- ] Can ---------- tell me the right time ?
6- ] Tell me ---------- you know , and ----------- will be well .
7- ] We ---------- know how hard you have worked ,-----------
shares your joy at your success.
8- ] ------------- are agreed that the government has taken a bold
decision .
9- ] Who is in the corridor ? - ------------
10- ] How ---------- does that cost ? - Very ---------- , only a few pence .
11- ] Look at my hands ; ------------ is on the table and the
------------- on my knee .
12- ]Now they are ------------- under the table !
13- ] I have only two eyes ; ------------ are good , but if I had
six , I should need them ------------to supervise those children properly .
14- ] Which arm have I raised ?
The left ------------
15- ] Which ---------- do you want ? ----------------- will do .
16- ] Which of my hands is in my pocket ? ---------------; they
are---------- on the table .
17- ] There will be a prize for ---------- of you .
18- ] ---------- sat for the examination , but ----------- passed
it .
19- ] One man’s meat is ------------ ‘s poison .
20- ] ----------- must look after himself .
21- ] Who is going to the lecture ? N----------
22- ] How ------------ went last week ? N------------
23- ] Have you------------- money ? Yes , ------------ but not
---------------
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