Spelling & Vocabulary Enrichment [ 25 ]

25- ] Spelling & Vocabulary Enrichment .

Politics and public institutions .

A-[ Types of government :

-‘republic’ :a state governed by representatives and usually a president [ e.g. US , France ]

- ‘monarchy’ : a state ruled by a king or queen [ e.g. UK , Sweden ]

- ‘federation’ : a union of political units [ e.g. provinces] under a central government [e.g. USA ]

- ‘democracy’ : government of , by and for the people

- ‘dictatorship’ : system of government run by a dictator

- ‘independence’ : freedom from outside control ; self-governing

B-] Presidential and parliamentary government [ US and UK ] :

United States :

- ‘Presidential government’ : The powers of the President and the legislature                   [ Congress ]are separate . These ‘branches’ of government are elected separately .

- ‘The President’ is ‘elected’ for a four-year ‘term’ and can ‘appoint’ or ‘nominate’ high official in government , including ‘cabinet’ members [ who advise ] and federal ‘judges’ . The President leads a major party , usually , but not always , the ‘majority party’ in Congress .

 - ‘Congress’ consists of two ‘houses’ , the ‘House of Representatives’ and the ‘Senate’.

- ‘Congressmen or women’ and ‘Senators’ are elected for fixed terms .

- The ‘judiciary’ is a separate branch . The ‘Supreme Court’ , the highest court , can ‘overrule’ the President and Congress .

C-] United Kingdom :

- ‘Parliamentary government’ : The government consists of a ‘legislature’ [Parliament] and a ‘Cabinet of Ministers’ from the ‘majority party’ in Parliament .

- The ‘Prime Minister’ is the head of the government and the leader of the majority party in the ‘House of Commons’ , holding office while the party holds a majority . The Prime Minister ‘selects’ high officials and ‘heads’ the Cabinet .

- ‘Parliament’ consists of two ‘chambers’ , the ‘House of Commons’ and the ‘House of Lords’ .

- ‘MPs’ are ‘members of parliament’ elected from each ‘constituency’ [ geographical area ] to the ‘House of Commons’ .

-The ‘judiciary’ is independent but it cannot ‘overrule’ the Prime Minister of Parliament .

The ‘Highest Court’ consists of a group of Lords .

D-] Parliamentary elections :

During a ‘general election’ each ‘constituency’ has to choose which ‘politician’ it wants as its ‘representative’ . Usually there are several ‘candidates’ to choose from . These candidates are all ‘standing’ [ or ‘running’] for Parliament . They present the ‘policies’ that they represent . On ‘polling day’ each citizen goes to the ‘polling station’ and ‘casts a vote’ by marking a cross on their ‘ballot paper’ . The candidate who gets the ‘majority’ of votes wins the ‘seat’ . If the vote is very close , the constituency may be referred to as a ‘marginal seat’ . If an MP dies ‘in office’ , then there has to be a ‘by[e]-election’ to replace him or her . The public can also occasionally vote in a ‘referendum’ – a ‘direct vote’ y the people on an important public issue .

The press and the media .

A-] The term the ‘mass media in English refers basically to TV , radio and newspapers : means of communication which reach very large numbers of people .

B-] Radio and television :

Types of programs : documentaries , news , broadcasts , current affairs programs  , soap operas [ continuing stories about the lives of a set of characters] ,

quizzes sitcoms [ comedies centering around a set of characters in a particular situation] , drama , chat shows , detective stories , sports programs , weather forecasts , music programs , game shows [ where contestants compete for prizes ] , variety shows , commercials [ adverts ]

-  ‘serial’ is a story that continues from one program or ‘episode’ to the next . A series about the same ‘characters’ or has the same format each week but each program is complete in itself .

- ‘Films’ originally made in a different language may have ‘sub-titles’ so you can read a translation of what the characters are saying or be ‘dubbed’ , so you hear what they are saying in your own language .

C-] Newspapers and publishing :

- ‘Parts of the newspaper’ : ‘headlines’ , ‘news reports’ , ‘editorial’ [ an opinion article written by the editor ] , ‘feature articles’ , e.g. about fashion or social trends , ‘horoscope’ , ‘cartoons’ , ‘crossword’ , ‘small ads’ , ‘business news’ , ‘sports reports’

, ‘scandal’ , ‘the letters page’ .

- A ‘popular’ or ‘tabloid newspaper’ focuses more on sensation than real news whereas a ‘quality newspaper’ A ‘tabloid’ usually has a smaller format than a ‘quality paper’ , it has larger ‘headlines’ and shorter stories , and in Britain it prefers stories about film stars , violent crimes and the royal family . A ‘journal’ is the name usually given to an academic ‘magazine’ . A ‘color supplement’ is a ‘magazine’ which comes out once a week [ often on Sundays ] as an addition to a newspaper . A ‘comic’ is a ‘magazine’ , usually for children or teenagers , with lots of picture stories and / or cartoons .

D-] Some verbs connected with the press and the media .

- The BBC World Service ‘broadcasts’ throughout the world .

- I can ‘receive’ / pick up’ broadcasts from Moscow on my radio .

- They’re ‘showing’ a good film on TV tonight .

- This book was ‘published’ by CUP and it was ‘printed’ in Cambridge .

- The film was ‘shot / made on location’ in Spain .

- They ‘cut / censored’ the film before showing it on TV .

- This article / program has been badly ‘edited’ .

Spelling & Vocabulary Enrichment [ 24 ]

24- ] Spelling & Vocabulary Enrichment .

 

Texture , brightness , weight and density .

A-] Texture – how something feels when you touch it :

adjective	typical examples
smooth	the paper , glass
polished	varnished wood / a shiny metal surface
silky	silk itself / fine , expensive tights or stockings
sleek	highly polished , streamlined , new car bodywork
downy	new-born baby’s hair
slippery	a fish just out of the water
furry	a thick sheepskin rug
rough	new , unwashed denim jeans / bark of a tree
coarse	sand
jagged	sharp , irregular edges of broken glass or metal
prickly	a thistle , cactus , thorns on a rose
gnarled	twisted , dead wood from an old tree

- Your hair has a ‘ silky’ ‘feel’ . – This cotton is very ‘smooth’ ‘to the touch’ .

- The table had a beautiful ‘polished’ ‘surface’ . –The ground was rough underfoot.

B-] Brightness : - ‘shiny’ leather shoes . –carnival costumes full of ‘vivid’ colors .

- a ‘shady’ corner of the garden . – a ‘dazzling’ light .

- You wear such ‘dull’ colors : why not get some ‘brighter’ clothes ?

- The light’s too ‘dim’ to read in here . We need another lamp .

- I wear sun-glasses when I drive because of the ‘glare’ of the sun .

C-] Density and weight :

- A ‘solid’ X ‘hollow’ object . – She has ‘thick’ X ‘thin’ / ‘fine’ hair .

- An area with ‘dense’ X ‘sparse’ vegetation .

- These boxes are rather ‘weighty’ . [ heavier than expected ]

- Your bag’s as ‘heavy’ as ‘lead’ ! What’s in it , bricks ?

- Your bag’s as ‘light’ as ‘a feather’ ! Have you brought enough ?

- This suitcase is very ‘bulky’ / ‘cumbersome’ . [ difficult , big and heavy ]

Sound and light .

A- ] General words to describe sound :

- I could hear the ‘sound’ of voices / music coming from the next room . [neutral]

- The ‘noise’ of the traffic here is pretty bad . [ loud , unpleasant sounds ]

- The children are making a terrible ‘racket’ upstairs . Could you go and tell them to be quiet ? [ informal ; very loud , unbearable noise , often of human activity ]

- ‘Noise’ and ‘sound’ can both be countable or uncountable . When they are of short duration or refer to different sounds / noises , they are countable . When they mean a lot of continual or continuous sounds , they are uncountable .

- Their lawnmower makes ‘a lot of noise’ , doesn’t it ? [ uncountable ]

- The ‘sound’ of the sea is very relaxing . [ uncountable ]

B- ] Sound words and things that typically make them :

verb /noun	example of what makes the sound
bang	a door closing in the wind , someone bursting a balloon
rustle	opening a paper / plastic bag , dry leaves underfoot
thud	a heavy object falling on to a carpeted floor
crash	a big , solid , heavy object falling on to a hard floor
clang	a big bell ringing , a hollow metal object being struck
clatter	a metal pan falling on to a concrete floor
hiss	gas /steam escaping through a small hole
rumble	distant noise of thunder , noise of traffic far away
roar	noise of heavy traffic , noise of a huge waterfall
ring	a small bell ringing , a telephone

C-] Darkness : Some adjectives for ‘dark ‘conditions .

- These brown walls are a bit ‘gloomy’ . We should paint them white .

- This torch is getting a bit ‘dim’ . I think it needs new batteries .

-It was a ‘somber’ room , with dark , heavy curtains . [ serious , imposing ]

D- ] Types of light :  Note these collocations .

- The sun ‘shines’ and gives out ‘rays’ of light .

- A torch gives out a ‘beam’ of light .

- A camera gives a ‘flash’ of light .

- Stars ‘twinkle’ .

- A candle-flame ‘flickers’ in the breeze .

- White-hot coal on a fire ‘glows’ .

- A diamond ring ‘sparkles’ .

- A gold object ‘glitters’ .

Movement and speed .

‘Move’ is the basic verb for all movement , but it also means ‘to move to a new house’

or flat’ , e.g. We’ve ‘moved’ . Do you want our new address ?

A-] Particular types of movement :

- Cars , lorries , etc. ‘travel’/ ‘drive’ along roads .

- Trains ‘travel’ along rails .

- Boats / ships ‘sail’ on rivers / across the sea .

- Rivers / streams ‘flow’ / ‘run’ through towns / villages .

B-] Things often have particular verbs associated with their types of movement .You should learn them as typical collocations .

- White clouds ‘drifted’ across the sky .

- The flag ‘fluttered’ in the wind .

- The leaves ‘stirred’ in the light breeze .

-The trees ‘swayed’ back and forth as the hurricane grew stronger .

- The car ‘swerved’ to avoid a dog which had run into the road .

C-] Verbs to describe fast and slow movement :

- The traffic was ‘crawling along’ because pf the roadworks .

- Stop ‘dawdling’ . We’ll be late !

- Suddenly a car came round the bend and ‘tore along’ the road at high speed . Seconds later , a police car ‘shot past’ after it .

- Everyone was ‘hurrying’ / ‘rushing’ to get their shopping done before closing time .

- The train was just ‘creeping’ / ‘plodding along’ at about 20 miles per hour . I knew we’d be late .

C-] Nouns to describe speed and their typical contexts :

- ‘speed’ is a general word : used for vehicles , developments , changes , etc. , e.g. We were travelling at high ‘speed’ .

- ‘rate’ is often used in statistical contexts ; the rate of increase / decrease , e.g. The birth ‘rate’ is going down .

- ‘pace’ shows how you experience something as happening fast or slow , e.g. The lesson was going at a very slow ‘pace’ .

- ‘velocity’ is used in technical / scientific contexts , e.g. The ‘velocity’ of a bullet .

Spelling & Vocabulary Enrichment [ 23 ]

23- ] Spelling & Vocabulary Enrichment .

Crimes .

A-] Note the difference between the verbs ‘steal ‘ and ‘rob’ . The object of the verb ‘steal’ is the thing which is taken away , e.g. They stole my bike . Whereas the object of the verb ‘rob’ is the person or place from which things are stolen , e.g. I was robbed last night . A masked man robbed the bank .

B-] The table below gives the names of some types of crimes together with their associated verbs and the name of the person who commits the crimes .

crime	definition	criminal	verb
murder	killing someone	murderer , killer	murder , kill
shoplifting	stealing something from a shop	shoplifter	shoplift
burglary	stealing something from  someone’s home	burglar	burgle
smuggling	taking something illegally into  another  country	smuggler	smuggle
kidnapping	taking a person hostage in exchange for money or other favors , etc.	kidnapper	kidnap

C-] Here are some more useful verbs connected with crime and law :

- He ‘committed’ a crime’ when he robbed a bank .

- Someone ‘witnessed’ the crime and told the police . The police ‘charged’ him ‘with’

‘bank robbery’ . They also ‘accused’ his twin brother of being his ‘accomplice’ .

- The ‘case’ ‘came to court’ and they were ‘tried’ . The ‘trial’ did not last very long . They ‘pleaded not guilty’ in the court . Their ‘lawyer’ did his best to ‘defend’ them but the ]prosecuting lawyer’ ‘produced’ a very strong case against them .

- After ‘brief deliberations’ , the ‘jury’ ‘passed verdict on’ them . They decided that one was ‘guilty’ but the other was ‘innocent’ . The ‘judge’ ‘acquitted’ the innocent ‘of’ any ‘involvement’ in the ‘robber’ but ‘sentenced’ the other ‘to’ three years ‘in prison’.

He also had to ‘pay’ a large ‘fine’ . The guilty ‘served’ two years in prison [jail] but was ‘released from’ prison a year early . He ‘got time off’ for ‘ good behavior’ .

D-] Here are some useful words :

- ‘trial’ : the legal process in court whereby an accused person is investigated , or tried and then found guilty or not guilty .

- ‘case’ : a crime that is being investigated .

- ‘evidence’ : information used in a court of law to decide whether the accused is guilty or not .

- ‘proof’ : evidence that shows conclusively whether something is a fact or not .

- ‘judge’ : the person who leads a trial and decides on the ‘sentence’ i.e. the punishment .

- ‘jury’ : group of twelve citizens who decide on the ‘verdict’ i.e. whether the accused is guilty or not .

Succeeding , failure and difficulty .

A-] Succeeding :

- We ‘succeeded in’ persuading a lot of people to join our protest

- I ‘managed’ to contact him just before he left his office .

- I don’t think I can ‘manage’ the whole walk . I think I’ll turn back  .

- We’ve ‘achieved’ / ‘accomplished’ a great deal in the last year . [ both are used with quantity phrases such as ‘a lot’ / ‘a little’ ; ‘accomplish’ is rather formal ]

- The company has ‘achieved’ all its ‘goals’ / ‘aims’ / ‘targets’ for the year . [ achieve is more common than accomplish with nouns expressing ‘goals’ and ‘ambitions’ ]

-Do you think his plan will ‘come off’ ?[ succeed ; informal ]

Matrix for some typical collocations with ‘succeeding’ verbs :

	reach	attain	secure	realize	fulfil	achieve
ambition		*		*	*	*
dream				*		*
agreement	*		*
obligation					*
target	*	*				*
compromise	*					*

B-] Failing and difficulty :

- Plans and projects sometimes ‘go wrong’ or ‘backfire’ . [ don’t run out as intended ]

- Companies , clubs and societies often ‘fold/ go under’ through lack of success . [ close down ; ‘go under’ is informal ]

- A plan or project may ‘falter’ , even if it finally succeeds . [ have ups and downs ]

- All your plans and hard work / efforts may ‘come to nothing’ .

- I have great ‘difficulty’ in getting up in the morning . I ‘find it difficult’ to remember the names of everybody in the class .[‘hard’ can also be used here ; it is more informal] 

- It’s ‘hard’ / ‘difficult’ to hear what she’s saying .

- I often ‘have trouble’ starting the car on cold mornings . [ more informal ]

- We’ve ‘had a lot of bother with’ the neighbors lately . [ very informal ]

- Can you ‘cope with’ three more students ? They’ve just arrived .

- I’ve no money , my friend left me ; I need help ; I just ‘can’t cope’ any more .