Special Finites , Auxiliary Verbs , Grammar American & British [ 15 ]

15- ] Grammar American & British 

The Special Finites [ Auxiliary Verbs ] .

The special finites are certain verbs sometimes called ‘auxiliary or helping verbs’ because they help other verbs to form interrogative , negative and emphatic forms of speech and to form tenses , mood and voice . There are twelve of them in all , viz.  be , have , can , do , shall , will , may , must , need , ought , dare , used to .They are twenty four if we reckon twelve others derived forms ( excluding the imperative ) for tenses , number and person , viz. am , is , are , was , were , ; has , had ; does , did ; should ; would ; could ; might .  

The term auxiliaries , or helping verbs for all of these verbs is not quite correct as some of them

 [ e.g. be , have , do ] are sometimes the only verb in the sentence . A better term is ‘Special Finites’ or ‘Anomalous Finites’ .

Examples

Keats was a poet .

They have a large house .

He did the work well .

They have certain characteristics which they , and they only possess and which distinguish them from all other verbs .

1- ] Formation Of The Negative .

The negative of these verbs is formed by placing ‘not’ immediately after them .

Examples

is , is not  / can , cannot / would , would not /  did  , did not  , etc.

Affirmative                                                          Negative

He is her .                                                         He is not here . [ He isn’t here . ]

They can speak English .                                They cannot speak English . [They can’t speak English.]

They would help us .                                        They would not help us . [ They wouldn’t help us . ]

The word ‘not’ is generally contracted in conversation and fused with the verb .The special finites are the only verbs that take the contracted form of ‘not’ .

Except for the Imperative . Only three of these verbs have an imperative form ( be , have , do ) . The negative imperative is formed with ‘do’ and ‘not’ .

Examples

Do not [ don’t ] be stupid .

Do not [ don’t ] have too much to eat .

Do not [ don’t ] do that .

2- ] Formation Of The Interrogative .

The interrogative of the special finites is made by inversion { i.e. by putting the verb before the subject ] .

Affirmative                                                        Interrogative

He can speak English .                                Can he speak English ?

She will come to the party .                         Will she come to the party ?

I ought to answer the letter .                        Ought I to answer the letter ?

All other verbs use ‘do , does , did’ and the infinitive .

Examples

Affirmative                                                        interrogative

He speaks English .                                         Does he speak English ?

She came to the party .                                   Did she come to the party ?

They like to play football .                             Do they like to play football ?

Question Tags ( Phrases ) .

The special finites alone have the ability to form ‘question tags [ phrases ]’ . We frequently , especially in conversation , add one of these phrases to a statement , thereby turning it into a question.

They are often used for checking information that we think we know is true. Usually if the main clause is positive, the question tag is negative, and if the main clause is negative, it's positive.

Examples

Present simple 'be'      We aren't late, are we?

Present perfect              She hasn't eaten all the cake, has she?

Twelve Rules for Tag Questions

Rule	Example
1. After “let’s”, the tag begins with “shall”.	Let’s invite the neighbors over for dinner on the weekend, shall we?
2. Use “aren’t I” in tags to mean “I am not”.	I’m on time, am’t I? (incorrect) I’m on time, aren’t I? (correct)
3. Use “won’t” for polite request tags.	You’ll bring the other things, won’t you?
4. Use “will” or “would” with imperative sentences (commands).	Wait here until I return, will you?  Wait here until I return, would you?
5. Use “mustn’t” with the modal “must”.	This must be the address, mustn’t it?
6. Two endings are possible when “have” is the main verb of the sentence.	You have enough money, don’t you? (North American English) You have enough money, haven’t you? (British English)
7. Use pronouns for people, not proper names, in question tags.	Betty has a good job, hasn’t she? Paul is a good tennis player, isn’t he?
8. Use “it” in a question tag when the sentence includes the words “this” or “that”.	This is your pen, isn’t it? That is Ahmad , isn’t he ?
9. Use “they” in a question tag when the sentence includes “these” or “those”.	Those are your sandals, aren’t they? These are her books , aren’t they ?
10. Use “there” in a question tag when the sentences includes “there + a form of be”.	There is a lot of work to do today, isn’t there?
11. Use “they” in a question tag when the sentence includes indefinite pronouns (nobody, no one, someone, somebody, everyone, everybody).	Nobody has eaten yet, have they? Everyone is here now, aren’t they?
12. Use “didn’t” in a question tag when the sentence includes the verb “used to”.	You used to go skating very often, didn’t you?”

How to form question tags .

Creating question tags is a little tricky and takes some practice. The key things to remember in constructing tag questions are the following:

1- ] A tag question always has two words .

These two words are an auxiliary or modal verb of the main sentence plus the subject .

Note : The subject of the question phrase or tag must be a pronoun ( or there ) .

Example

There’s no one in the house , is there ?

2- ] If the main sentence is affirmative, the tag question is negative, and if the main sentence is negative, the tag question is affirmative.

Example

You can swim, can’t you?

In order to help you create the tag question, you can think what the question form of the sentence would be, then make it negative or affirmative.

Examples

You like football. Do you like football? You like football, don’t you?

She comes from Shanghai, doesn’t she?

You don’t want to leave, do you?

You’re coming tomorrow, aren’t you?

Tom wasn’t on your train, was he?

They’ve moved to Paris, haven’t they?

We don’t have to go to the party, do we?

It’s stopped raining, hasn’t it?

3- ] Question tags with the verb ‘to be’

As you know, for all verbs we make questions by adding the auxiliary verb ‘do’, except with the verb ‘to be’. So when we make question tags with ‘to be’ we just invert the verb and subject as we do in normal questions.

Example

You’re an English student. Are you an English student? You’re an English student, aren’t you?

4- ] There is one irregularity with question tags and the verb ‘to be’. When we need to use a negative question tag with the first person singular, we use aren’t instead of am not (simply because there isn’t a contracted form to use).

Example

I’m late, aren’t I? (Not, am not I?)

However, when the tag is affirmative following a negative sentence, the tag can use am I.

Example

I’m not late, am I?

5- ] Question tags for imperatives

When we need a question tag for an imperative sentence, we use will/won’t.

Examples

Have a seat, won’t you?

Help yourself to some cake, won’t you?

Don’t wait for us, will you?

6- ] When you’re angry, you can use the affirmative form in combination with an affirmative phrase.

 Examples

Children, be quiet, will you?

Get back to work, will you?

7- ] While for imperatives in the first person plural using Let’s, we use shall we for the tag.

Examples

Let’s meet at the restaurant, shall we?

Let’s go out, shall we?

8- ] To a word that expresses negation in a statement [ never , hardly , scarcely , seldom , etc. ] an affirmative question phrase is added .

Examples

She scarcely attends parties , does she ?

They have never come here before , have they ?

That job is hardly suitable for him , is it ?

He seldom travels to visit his uncle , does he ?

Answers To Question Tags .

If the question tag is positive , the answer is negative , and if the question tag is negative the answer is positive .

Examples

He finished his work , didn’t he ?

Yes , he did .

He didn’t finish his work , did he ?

No , he didn’t .

They could cross the river , couldn’t they ?

Yes , they could .

They couldn’t cross the river , could they ?

No , they couldn’t .

Balanced And Unbalanced Tags

English question tags exist in both positive and negative forms. When there is no special emphasis, the rule of thumb often applies that a positive sentence has a negative tag and vice versa. This form may express confidence, or seek confirmation of the asker's opinion or belief.

She is French, isn't she?

She's not French, is she?

These are referred to as balanced tag questions.

Unbalanced tag questions feature a positive statement with a positive tag, or a negative statement with a negative tag; it has been estimated that in normal conversation, as many as 40–50%[4] of tags are unbalanced. Unbalanced tag questions may be used for ironic or confrontational effects:

Do listen, will you?

Oh, I'm lazy, am I?

Jack: I refuse to spend Sunday at your mother's house! Jill: Oh you do, do you? We'll see about that!

Oh! Making a stand, are we?

Unbalanced tags also occur when shall is used to ask for confirmation of a suggestion:

I'll make tea, shall I?

Let's start, shall we? (there is no interrogative version of let's, so here shall we is used as if the sentence were we shall start)

Patterns of negation can show regional variations. In North East Scotland, for example, positive to positive is used when no special effect is desired:

This pizza's fine, is it? (standard English: This pizza's delicious, isn't it?)

Note the following variations in the negation when the auxiliary is the I form of the copula:

Standard/formal: Clever, am I not?

England (and America, Australia, etc.): Clever, aren't I?

Scotland/Northern Ireland: Clever, amn't I?

nonstandard dialects: Clever, ain't I?

Using Tag Questions

Tag questions are used to ask for agreement or to ask for things, favours, or new information. To determine which, listen to the speaker's tone. A rising tone at the end of a tag question indicates that it is a real question. The speaker wants to know something or wants someone to do something. Falling tone however, means that the speaker is looking for agreement.

Rising tone -

asking for a favor        You couldn't lend me some money, could you?

Rising tone –

asking for information You don't happen to know if the No. 50 bus has already passed here, do you?

Falling tone -

asking for agreement  The boss wasn't in a good mood today, was he?

That dress looks great on her, doesn't it?

Note: We usually use a negative sentence with a positive tag to request things or information, as in the preceding examples.

Intonation

English tag questions can have a rising or a falling intonation pattern.[5] This can be contrasted with Polish, French or German, for example, where all tags rise, or with the Celtic languages, where all fall. As a rule, the English rising pattern is used when soliciting information or motivating an action, that is, when some sort of response is required. Since normal English yes/no questions have rising patterns (e.g. Are you coming?), these tags make a grammatical statement into a real question:

You're coming, aren't you?

Do listen, will you?

Let's have a beer, shall we?

The falling pattern is used to underline a statement. The statement itself ends with a falling pattern, and the tag sounds like an echo, strengthening the pattern. Most English tag questions have this falling pattern.

He doesn't know what he's doing, does he?

This is really boring, isn't it?

Sometimes the rising tag goes with the positive to positive pattern to create a confrontational effect:

He was the best in the class, was he? (rising: the speaker is challenging this thesis, or perhaps expressing surprised interest)

He was the best in the class, wasn't he? (falling: the speaker holds this opinion)

Be careful, will you? (rising: expresses irritation)

Take care, won't you? (falling: expresses concern)

Sometimes the same words may have different patterns depending on the situation or implication.

You don't remember my name, do you? (rising: expresses surprise)

You don't remember my name, do you? (falling: expresses amusement or resignation)

Your name's Mary, isn't it? (rising: expresses uncertainty)

Your name's Mary, isn't it? (falling: expresses confidence)

As an all-purpose tag the Multicultural London English set-phrase in nit (for "isn't it") is only used with falling patterns:

He doesn't know what he's doing, innit?

He was the best in the class, innit?

On the other hand, the adverbial tag questions (alright? OK? etc.) are almost always found with rising patterns. An occasional exception is surely.

Other forms

Besides the standard form based on auxiliary verbs, there are other forms specific to particular regions or dialects of English. These are generally invariant, regardless of verb, person or negativity.

The tag right? is common in a number of dialects across the UK and US, as well as in Indian English. It is an example of an invariable tag which is preferred in American English over traditional tags.[6]

The tags isn't it? and no? are used in Indian English.[7]

The tag eh? is of Scottish origin,[8] and can be heard across much of Scotland, New Zealand,[9][10] Canada[11][12][13][14] and the North-Eastern United States. In Central Scotland (in and around Stirling and Falkirk), this exists in the form eh no? which is again invariant.

The tag or? is used commonly in the North-Eastern United States and other regions to make offers less imposing. These questions could always logically be completed by stating the opposite of the offer, though this effect is understood intuitively by native speakers. For example:

Would you like another drink, or (would you not)?

Did you want to go to the park together, or (did you not want to go)?

I understand that it’s not easy for non-native speakers to create question tags naturally and fluently, but it’s very useful to know them so that you’re prepared for when you hear them. And you can perhaps start to use the most basic form yourself. For example, when you see someone you’ve met before and you want to check you remember their name correctly, you can say,

You’re Maria, aren’t you?

Then you can gradually build on this using tags with don’t you.

Example

You work in marketing, don’t you?

Question tags can help you sound like a native speaker!

Short Answers .

1- ] The special finites are used for ‘short answers’ to avoid repetition of the verb .

Example

Question                                Full Answer                                   Short Answer

Can you speak Russian ?   Yes , I can speak Russian .       Yes , I can . /No, I can’t .

 Types Of Short Answers .

1- ] ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ answer .

Examples

Question                                                         Answer

Will he help us ?                                           Yes , he will .  / No , he won’t .

Could he come to the party ?                       Yes he could . / No , he couldn’t .

Dare you go there alone ?                             Yes , I dare . / No , I daren’t .

Do you speak Spanish ?                                 Yes I do . / No , I don’t .

Did you hear me ?                                          Yes I did . / No , I didn’t .

2- ] Answer to a question introduced by an interrogative .

Examples

Question                                                                               Answer

Who was there first Mohamad or Ahmad ?              Ahmad was .

Who can answer the question ?                                  I can.

Who doesn’t understand this ?                                   I don’t . / My friend doesn’t .

3- ] Short answers expressing agreement .

Examples

Statement                                                                            Answer

I think Ali is working well .                                           Yes , he is .

Sarah has done well in her examination .                    Yes , she has .

He’ll pay the money , won’t he ?                                   Yes , he will .

4- ] Short Answers expressing disagreement .

Statement                                                                          Answer

It will take hours to do this work .                              No , it won’t .

That car must have cost a lot of money .                    Oh , no , it didn’t .

He will pay the money .                                                Of course , he won’t .

Nasser works hard .                                                      I’m afraid he doesn’t .

5- ] Additions and responses to sentences .

1- ] With ‘so’ , meaning ‘also’ .

                       so + special finite + subject

Examples

Sentences                                                          Response   

I have written a letter to Mohamad .           So have I .

Nasser has given the right answer .          And so has Jamal .

Said can speak English well and so can his father .

Sonia will help and so will Suzi .

Saudi must come and so must Talal .

Laila speaks French and so does her mother .

Ahmad answered the questions well and so did Salah .

I was born free as Caesar , so were you . [ Shakespeare , Julius Caesar ]      

2- ] The negative construction parallel to ‘so’  .

                             neither + special finite + subject   

Examples

Nader hasn’t given the right answer , neither ( nor ) has Sandy .

Khalid can’t speak Russian . Neither ( nor ) can Salem .

Salma didn’t answer the questions , neither ( nor ) did her sister .

3- ] with ‘so’ expressing surprised agreement .

Examples

It’s the 15th today , and you’ve dated your letter the 14th .

So I have .

That’s the officer coming in at the gate .

So it is .    

2- ] There is a construction that combines the short answer and the question phrase or tag . It is used when we want to express surprised and truculent disapproval . The tone of the voice indicates the feeling .

Examples

Sentence                                                                             Answer 

I’ve left my book at home .                                        Oh , you have , have you ?

I can’t pay you the money I owe you .                      Oh , you can’t , can’t you ?

I won’t be spoken to like this .                                   Oh , you won’t , won’t you ?

I don’t like you .                                                          Oh , you don’t , don’t you ?

The child tore up his book .                                        Oh , he did , did he ?

The lady hates English coffee .                                   Oh , she does , does she ?

The only verbs that can be used for short answers of any these types are the special finites .

5- ] Elliptical Sentences .

This construction avoids the repetition of the verb , etc.

Examples

He doesn’t often come to the class , and when he does [ = does come ] he is generally late .

He speaks Spanish better than Solomon can . [ can speak it ] , better than Solomon ever will [ = will speak it ]  .

I go for a swim every day . Do you ? [ = go for a swim every day ]

I can’t understand a word he says . Can you ? [ = Can you understand a word he says ? ]

The only verbs that can be used for these elliptical sentences are the special finites .

6- The Emphatic Form

The emphatic form of the verb is expressed by using one of the special finites . There is a strong stress on the special finite for affirmative emphasis , a strong stress on the ‘not’ ( never) immediately following the special finite for negative emphasis .

1- ]Affirmative Emphasis

Examples

My sister will be pleased to see you .

We have enjoyed our visit .

You can sing beautifully .

I should like a holiday in Switzerland .

I do enjoy good music .

2- ]Negative Emphasis .

Examples

I did not take your book .

They will never agree to that .

You ought not to do that .

 3- ] Sometimes we want to be emphatic to assert an affirmative when the listener seems tto assume a negative .

Examples

Why don’t you work hard ?                                But I do work hard .

Why didn’t she give him the book ?                   But she did give him the book .

Why won’t they keep their promise ?                 But they will keep their promise .

Why haven’t you tidied your room ?                  But I have tidied my room .

The only verbs that can take this stress for affirmative emphasis are the special finites . If an ordinary verb is emphasized it is the meaning of the verb that is being stressed , not its affirmative nature . If , for example , instead of saying : ‘But she did give him the book’ , you said : ‘But she gave the book’ , your sentence would suggest .

She didn’t lend him the book , or sell him the book , nor did she steal it ; she gave it to him .

7- ] Position Of Adverbs .

With the special finites certain mid-position adverbs chiefly the adverbs of frequency ( always , often , usually , sometime , etc. ) have a different position from the position they have with other verbs [ they come after the special finites , in other words , the adverb comes between the special finite and the main verb ] .

Examples

The baby can nearly walk .

They are just leaving the house .

You should never make that mistake again .

Roman was never a very good footballer .

The manager’s work is always carefully done .

8- ] Third Person Singular .

The third person singular of the Present Simple in all verbs except the special finites has a characteristic regular ending ; the addition of ‘s’ to the first person singular .

Examples

He , She , It needs , plays , eats , grows , etc.

But not with the special finites .

He may come late .

Compare the corresponding forms of the special finites :

He can , will , may , must , is , has , does , ought , used to , etc.

When the forms ‘needs’ and ‘dares’ are used , these verbs are not functioning as special finites .

The Special Finites .

1- ] To ‘be’ .

The verb be is used as an auxiliary verb and it can also be used as a main verb. See Types of main verb.

The verb be is irregular. It has eight different forms: be, am, is, are, was, were, being, been. The present simple and past simple tenses make more changes than those of other verbs.

I am late.         We are late.

You are late.                You are late.

He is late.        They are late.

I was late.        We were late.

You were late.              You were late.

She was late.    They were late.

The present participle is being.

He is being very helpful these days.

The past participle is been.

We have been ready for an hour.

The present simple tense forms of be are often contracted in normal speech. Note that the contracted form of they are is spelled they’re, and not their which is the possessive form of they.

I’m here.         We’re here.

You’re here.                 You’re here.

He’s here.        They’re here.

1- ] Any form of be is made negative by adding not immediately after it. In speech, some forms of be also have contracted negative forms. Some of these forms emphasize the negative.

            emphasizes the negative

I’m not late.    

You aren’t late.           You’re not late.

He isn’t late.    He’s not late.

We aren’t late. We’re not late.

They aren’t late.         They’re not late.

             

I wasn’t late.  

You weren’t late.       

He wasn’t late.

We weren’t late.         

They weren’t late.      

2- ] The major uses of be as an auxiliary verb are to form continuous tenses and the passive.

Continuous tenses of main verbs use the appropriate form of be, present or past, followed by the present participle (or -ing form). See The present continuous tense and Form of adverbs and The present perfect continuous tense.

The passive form of a main verb uses the appropriate form of be followed by the past participle. See Active and passive.

The verb be is also used as a main verb. It is commonly found joining a subject to its complement.

As a main verb, be is used to talk about:

3- ] Feelings and states. For this we use the simple tenses of the verb with a suitable adjective. See Tense and Aspect.

I am delighted with the news but he is not happy.

She was busy so she was not able to see me.

People’s behavior. For this we use the continuous tenses of the verb with a suitable adjective. See The past simple tense.

I am not being slow, I am being careful.

You were being very rude to your mum when I came downstairs.

Be + the to infinitive is sometimes used to refer to future time. This is a rather formal use, which often appears in news reports. See The to infinitive and The to infinitive and the -ing form.

The Prime Minister is to visit Hungary in October.

The Archbishop is to have talks with the Pope next month.

It + be: we use it as a subject when we are talking about time, distance, weather, or cost. In this use, be is always singular.

Hurry up, it’s eight thirty!

Is it? I didn’t know it was so late.

It’s thirty miles to Glasgow.

Come and visit us. It’s not very far.

It’s cold today but it isn’t wet.

It’s very expensive to live in London.

There + is/are is used to talk about something existing. In this use, the form that be takes may be singular or plural, depending on the number of the noun, and be is sometimes contracted.

There’s a spare toothbrush in the cupboard.

There was a cold wind blowing.

There isn’t enough petrol for the journey.

There are several petrol stations on the way, aren’t there?

To make the continuous tenses of the main verb be we have to use be twice, once as an auxiliary and once as a main verb.

You are being so annoying!

I know I am being silly, but I am frightened.

The question form of clauses with the verb be in them is made by putting the appropriate form of be right in front of the subject.

Are you better now?

Is he free this morning?

Was he cooking dinner when you arrived?

4- ] The verb ‘to be’ is a verb of ‘incomplete predication’ [ i.e. it requires something else ( called the complement ) to complete its meaning .

Examples

Your dinner is ready .

In four minutes it will be nine o’clock .

His father was a famous man .

5- ] It is a full verb , when it has the general meaning of ‘to exist’ .

Examples

Whatever is is eight .

I think ; therefore I am .

There are people who try to help others .

The memory of what has been and never more shall be ,

                            ‘Can such things be

                       And overcome us like a summer’s cloud

                      Without our special wonder ?’ [ Macbeth on seeing the ghost of Banquo .

6- ] A part of the verb ‘to be’ followed by an infinitive with ‘to’ is used to express an arrangement .

Examples

I am to have tea with my friend this afternoon .

The wedding is to take place on Thursday .

If we are to be at the station by nine o’clock we must go now .

  - This construction implies futurity or as in the following example future in the past .

My sister and her husband were to come and see us this week-end , but they couldn’t come . She is to let me know if they can come next week .

7- ] The same construction expresses also what is equivalent to a command .

Examples

You are to see the headmaster in his room at 4 o’clock .

You are not to leave the building without permission .   

8- ] The construction ‘If I ( he , she , it ) were ……’ is one of the remaining subjunctive inflections in modern English .

9- ] Some of the special finites are used with do , but the verb ‘to be’ is never used with ‘do’ except in the imperative . With the negative imperative , ‘do’ must be used [ unless it is replaced by ‘never’ = do not ever ] .

Examples

Don’t be late tomorrow .

Never be cruel or unjust .

10- ] ‘Do’ may be used with the affirmative imperative and usually implies more emotion of some kind .

Examples

Do be careful when you cross the road ; there is always a lot of traffic at the spot . [ Apprehension ]

Do be as nice to him as you can ; he’s terribly shy . [ Begging rather than commanding ]

The usual imperative form is simply ‘Be ……’

To Have .

The verb have has the forms: have, has, having, had. The base form of the verb is have. The present participle is having. The past tense and past participle form is had.

The present and past forms are often contracted in everyday speech, especially when have is being used as an auxiliary verb.

The contracted forms are:

have = ’ve        I’ve seen the Queen.

has = ’s He’s gone on holiday.

            Ian’s behaved badly.

had = ’d           You’d better go home.

            Ian’d left them behind.

The form have contracts to ’ve. This can sound rather like of, especially after other auxiliary verbs.

She would’ve given you something to eat.

You could’ve stayed the night with us.

If he’d asked, I might’ve lent him my car.

Avoid the common mistake of writing of in this case.

1- ] The verb have is used as an auxiliary verb

She has run a lovely, deep, bubble bath.

Katie had read about the concert in the newspaper.

2- ] and also as a main verb. See Tense.

She is having a bath at the moment.

The driver has had his breakfast, so we can go.

3- ] As an auxiliary verb, have is used to make the perfect tenses of main verbs.

The perfect tenses of main verbs use the appropriate form of have, present or past, followed by the past participle. See The present perfect tense, The past perfect tense, The present perfect continuous tense and The past perfect continuous tense.

I have read some really good books over the holidays.

I had seen the film before.

4- ]The negative of a clause containing a compound verb with have is made by adding not or another negative word immediately after the appropriate form of have. In speech, some forms of have also have contracted negative forms.

I have never seen such luxury.

Rachel had not been abroad before.

She had hardly had time to eat when Paul arrived.

5- ] present tense and past tense forms that emphasize the negative element:

I/we/you/they’ve not;  he/she/it’s not

I/we/you/he/she/it /they’d not                

She’s not told me about it yet.

We’ve not been here before.

They’d not seen him for weeks.

6- ]present tense and past tense negative forms that are used less emphatically:

I/we/you/they haven’t; he/she/it hasn’t

I/we/you/he/she/it /they hadn’t              

He hasn’t found anywhere to stay this holiday.

We haven’t been here before.

They hadn’t looked very hard, in my opinion.

7- ] As a main verb, have is used to talk about:

states or conditions, such as possession or relationship.

In these uses, continuous tenses are not possible. With this meaning have is sometimes used alone, adding only not to make negatives, and adding nothing to make questions.

I have something for you.

We haven’t anything for you today.

Have you no sense of shame?

The driver has had his breakfast, so we can go.

We had a good time.

    It is also often used with forms of do to make negatives and questions.

Do you have a pen?

Does she have my umbrella?

She doesn’t have any brothers or sisters.

Do you have time to see me now?

8- ] Have got is an informal form of this main verb use of have, often used in speaking, especially in British English.

I haven’t got any brothers or sisters.

Has she got my umbrella? – Yes, she has.

She hasn’t got any money.

activities, including those such as eating, and leisure.

With this meaning of have, negatives and questions are formed using one of the forms of do.

He was having a shower when I phoned.

I’m having lunch at twelve o’clock.

Come and have a sandwich with me,

No thanks. I don’t usually have lunch.

He’s having a day off.

Did you have a good holiday?

Contractions and weak forms are not possible with this meaning.

Have got is not used with this meaning.

to express obligation using have to or have got to.

I’ve got to go now, I’m afraid.

Do you have to leave so soon?

Have you got to leave so soon?

9- ]When have is a main verb, it makes perfect forms like all other main verbs. This means that it is possible to use have twice in present or past perfect sentences, once as an auxiliary verb and once as a main verb.

We have had enough, thank you.

They had already had several warnings.

10- ] When it is used as a full verb it sometimes , but not always behaves like a special finite , for example forming its interrogative by inversion and its negative simply by adding ‘not’ . It behaves like a special finite when it is denoting possession [ using the word possession in its widest sense ] .

Examples

How many brothers and sisters have you ( got ) ?

A triangle has three sides .

You haven’t ( got ) much room here .

He hasn’t a lot of time to spare .

We haven’t much money , but we do see life .

Has your sister ( got ) blue eyes or brown eyes ?

American usage is different . Americans would not treat ‘have’ as a special finite in these negative or interrogative sentences They would say .

American English

How many brothers and sisters do you have ?

You don’t have much room here .

He doesn’t have a lot of time to spare .

Does your sister have blue eyes or brown eyes ?

We don’t have much money but we do see life .

11- ] It does not behave like a special finite when it has meanings other than possession .

Examples

Did you have [ = receive ] a letter from home this morning ?

I didn’t have [  eat ] any breakfast this morning .

Did you have [ = drink ] tea or coffee for breakfast ?

I don’t have [ = find , experience ] much difficulty with English grammar .

Did you have [ = experience , enjoy ] a good time at the dance last night ?

Do have [ = take ] a shower when you get up ?

12- ] In these sentences ‘ got’ could not be used with ‘have’ .

Note all the sentences are correct .

Examples

Have you a headache ? [ special finite ]

Yes , but I hadn’t one when I came here . [ special finite ]

Do you often have headaches ? [ not special finite ]

You don’t often have headaches , do you ? [ not special finite ]

13- ] The general principle is that ‘have’ is treated as a special finite :

1- ] when the ‘possession’ is a permanent thing .

Examples

She has blue eyes .

The three sides are what a triangle have .

2- ] When we are speaking of one particular occasion [ e.g. Have you a headache now ? ] But when the ‘possession’ is a recurring or habitual thing [ e.g. Do you often have a headache ? ] then have is not treated as a special finite .

Examples

Have you anyone staying with you at present ?

Do you often have visitors staying with you ?

- In the past tense , however , the interrogative form ‘Did you have …..’ is often preferred where the above rule would demand ‘Has you…..’ .

The Causative Use Of ‘Have’

1- ] The construction   have  + past participle

It is used to show that , without doing something ourselves , we cause it to be done .

Examples

He went to the barber to have his hair cut .

We have just had our house e painted [ = caused our house to be painted ]

I have just had my hair cut ; why don’t you have yours done ?

Why didn’t you have that suit cleaned ?

Did you take the car to the garage ? to have it overhauled ?

Why don’t you have these knives sharpened ? They won’t cut .

The rousers of this suit are too long ; I must have them shortened .

Why didn’t you have your luggage sent on in advance ?

2- ] There is a similar construction , where , instead of ‘causing’ something , you ‘suffer’ something.

Examples

I had my pocket picked this morning . [ something stolen from it ]

You won’t have your house burgled easily if you keep a good dog .

He had his license endorsed for careless driving .

- In most of these examples the causative ‘have’ could be replaced by ‘get’ .

Examples

Why didn’t you get that suit cleaned ?

Why don’t you get your hair cut ?

Do As A Main Verb And Special Finite .

The verb do is used as an auxiliary verb.

I do not want it.           We do not want it.

You do not want it.      You do not want it.

He does not want it.     They do not want it.

I did not want it.          We did not want it.

You did not want it.     You did not want it.

She did not want it.      They did not want it.

1- ] It can also be used as a main verb. See Types of main verb. When do is used as an auxiliary verb it is a supporting verb. Because a main verb cannot combine directly with negatives or make questions, do is used to support the main verb.

Don’t talk!

Don’t run!

2- ] It is also used to stand in for another verb to avoid repetition, as shown on Auxiliary verbs.

The verb do is irregular. It has five different forms: do, does, doing, did, done. The base form of the verb is do. The past simple form, did, is the same throughout. The present participle is doing. The past participle is done.

The present simple tense do and the past simple tense did can be used as an auxiliary verb. As an auxiliary, do is not used with modal verbs.

I do not want it.           We do not want it.

You do not want it.      You do not want it.

He does not want it.     They do not want it.

I did not want it.          We did not want it.

You did not want it.     You did not want it.

She did not want it.      They did not want it.

3- ]As an auxiliary verb do is used in the following ways:

to help make the negative and question forms of present simple and past simple tenses.

Oh dear, I didn’t feed the cat this morning.

Do you know what time it is?

Did Tim pay for his ticket last night?

to make the negative form of a command.

Don’t talk!

Don’t run!

4- ] to make a command more persuasive. See The imperative.

Do let me see it!

to avoid repeating a main verb in additions, commands, sentence tags, and short answers.

They often go to the cinema, and so do we.

Don’t run on the road! Don’t do it!

You live in Glasgow, don’t you?

Do you play cricket? – No, I don’t.

Did they tell you the news? – Yes, they did.

Jim likes jazz, I think. Yes, he does.

5- ]in comparisons.

She sings better than I do.

The positive forms of do cannot be contracted. In speech, the negative has contracted forms.

I don’t (do not) agree with you.

She doesn’t (does not) live here now.

They didn’t (did not) buy any food.

present tense negative forms:

I/we/you/they don’t; he/she/it doesn’t

past tense negative form:

I/we/you/he/she/it/they didn’t

6- ] When do is a main verb, it has a range of meanings that includes carry out, perform, fix, or provide. It is sometimes used in place of a more specific verb.

I’ll do the lawn now.

(I’ll mow the lawn now.)

I’ll do you.

(I’ll punch you.)

We don’t do coach parties.

(We don’t serve coach parties.)

It is then used with the full range of tenses and forms. See also The present simple tense.

Are you doing your homework?

You have been doing well this term.

She had done enough, so she stopped.

This has been done before.

7- ]The main verb use of do can be used to talk about:

habits.

I do the washing up every evening.

This what I usually do.

behavior.

He did something rather foolish.

I didn’t do anything wrong.

What are you doing?

plans.

What are you doing on Sunday?

As a main verb, do makes negatives and questions like all other main verbs:

in the present simple tense with auxiliary do.

What does he do for a living?

Do I do it this way?

No, you don’t do it like that at all.

in the past simple tense with auxiliary did.

Did Henry do it, then?

Didn’t Henry do it, then?

He didn’t do it, you know.

8- ]This means that it is possible to use do twice in negative and interrogative sentences; once as an auxiliary verb and once as a main verb.

As a main verb, do can be used with modal verbs.

They will do it for you, if you ask nicely.

I can do it, but I shouldn’t do it.

9- ] ‘Do’ is used for ‘question phrases or tags’ with all the verbs that are not special finites .

Examples

You understand me , don’t you ?

You didn’t come here by bus , did you ?

Can and could

can

The negative form is:  cannot.

I cannot understand why he did it.

The contracted negative form is:         can’t.

I can’t help it.

could

The contracted negative form is:         couldn’t.

I couldn’t help it.

1- ] ‘Can’ and ‘could’ are always special finites . Both these verbs indicate power , capacity and ability in some respect. The use of could is usual in clauses that contain a reference to past time.

Morag can speak French quite well now.

I couldn’t play chess two years ago, but I can now.

When I was younger I could play tennis really well.

Winston is so strong he can lift me right off my feet.

Can you get up the stairs without help?

You can come over for dinner whenever you like.

Could , Able To , Manage To .

1-  ]‘Could’ is not always equivalent to ‘was able’ . If the reference is to something that can be done because of knowledge or skill , either ‘could’ or ‘was able ‘ may be used .

Examples

I could ( was able to ) swim when I was only six years old .

He hurt his foot , and couldn’t ( wasn’t able to ) play football .

The door was locked , and I couldn’t ( wasn’t able to ) open it .

2- ] If the implication is achievement , that is if the meaning is ‘managed to’ , ‘succeeded in doing’ , then ‘was able to’ and not could would normally be used .

Examples

Because he worked hard he was able to ( = managed ) his examination .

I finished my work early and so was able ( = managed ) to go to the concert this afternoon .

Something went wrong with my car when I was coming here . We were able to drive ( = did you succeed in driving ) it home or had you to take it to a garage ?

3- ] With the negative , either ‘could’ or ‘be able to’ is possible .

Example

‘I wonder why Ali hasn’t come yet ?’ ‘Perhaps she was not able to ( couldn’t ) get ( = didn’t succeed in getting ) away from the office .

Summary Of The Tenses Of ( to be able to ) / Can

Present Infinitive	to be able [ can ]	Simple Present	can (am , is ,are) able to
Past Simple	I could ( was , were ) able to	Present Perfect	have , has been able to
Past Perfect	had been able to	Future Perfect	will , shall have been able to
Conditional [Present]	could , should be able to	Conditional Past	could have , should have been able to

2- ] Can and could are used:

1- ] to indicate that you know how to do something.

Mary can do these sums.

I couldn’t draw very well when I was younger.

2- ] to show ability to do something. (Compared with be able to, can indicates ability of a more general nature that includes ‘is permitted to’.)

When I was younger I could ski really well.

Graham can run ten miles in 25 minutes.

Are you able to walk to the car?

3- ] to make polite requests or to ask for permission. In colloquial speech ‘can’ is used to replace the more formal ‘may’ to express permission ; the negative ‘cannot’ (can’t) is used to express prohibition .

Examples

In London buses you can smoke in the upper deck , but you can’t smoke downstairs .

You can have my seat , I am going now .

Father said we could go to the concert .

Could is more tentative than can. (Compare with may, which is more formal.)

Can I borrow the car tomorrow evening, Mum?

Could I come with you on the trip?

May I take this book home with me?

- Both ‘can ‘ and ‘could’ are used to make rather informal request .

Examples

Can you change a pound note for me , please ?

Could you tell me the right time , please ?

- In this case ‘could’ is felt to be rather more polite than ‘can’ .

4- ] to express the possibility of an action in the future, especially when the possibility is related to plans or projects. (Compare with may, where the possibility referred to is still uncertain and in the future.)’Can’ is also used to express a possibility .

Examples

You can attend an Advanced Class or an International Class , but you can’t attend both as they take place at the same time .

We can go to Paris next week since you are free.

We could go to Paris next week if you are free.

We may go to Paris, but it depends on our finances.

5- ] to express the possibility of an action in the present.

You can dive off these rocks; it is quite safe here.

We could dive off the rocks, but we must take care.

6- ] to talk about actions that were possible but did not happen, using could + the perfect form of have.

Mary could have stopped the fight but she didn’t.

7- ] using the perfect form of have, to speculate about actions that have recently taken place.

Who could/can have broken the window?

Who would have guessed that they were related?

8- ] ‘Can’ is used in questions and exclamations to express the idea , ‘Is it possible …..?’

Examples

Can it be true ?

Can he really believe that he can deceive us so easily ?

9- ]’Can’ is also used to express what may be possible , or what a thing or person is occasionally or generally capable of ( usually , but not always , sometimes unpleasant ) .

Examples

Driving on these roads can be a very nerve-racking business .

Our house is on the top of a hill , and in winter the winds can be pretty cold .

- But for a particular occasion rather than for a general condition ,’may’ would be used .

Example

Driving on this frost road may be dangerous today , so go carefully .

- ‘Can’ suggests previous experience , ‘may’ merely uncertainty .

Example

He is a bad-tempered fellow , but he can be quite charming when he wishes .

10- ] ‘Cannot’ (can’t) is also used to express a virtual impossibility .

Example

Adel can’t have [ = it’s practically impossible that he has ] missed the way . I explained the route carefully and drew him a map .

11- ] With verbs of perception , the continuous tense is not used ( stative verbs ); the use of ‘can’ gives an appropriate equivalent to the continuous tense .

Examples

Listen ! I think I can hear ( not am hearing ) the sound of the sea .

I can smell ( not am smelling ) something burning in the kitchen .

12- ] ‘Could’ is also used to express a rather gentle doubt .

Examples

Yes , his story could be true , but I hardly think it is .

Well , I could do the job today , but I’d rather put it off until Friday .

13- ] A distinction between can and could is observed in conditionals. Could is used when the conditions are not met.

If Louisa is coming, she can look after the children for a while.

If Helen had more money, she could buy a computer.

When changing sentences from direct to reported speech can is usually changed to could.

Bernard said, ‘I can do it for you, Sue.’

Bernard said that he could do it for Sue.

Must

‘Must’ is a defective verb having only the one form . It is always a special finite .

must

The contracted negative form is:         mustn’t.

You mustn’t worry so much.

1- ] Must is used to express obligation, give orders and give advice. It can only be used for present and future reference. When the past is involved, you use have to.

Must is used:

1- ] to express obligation.

All pupils must bring a packed lunch tomorrow.

2- ] to give orders firmly and positively.

You must go to sleep now.

3- ] to give advice or make recommendations emphatically.

You must get one of these new smoothie-makers – they’re great!

You must see ‘Nim’s Island’ – it’s brilliant.

4- ] to speculate about the truth of something.

She must be mad!

You must be joking!

There must be some mistake.

Mr. Robertson is here; it must be Tuesday.

2- ]When this sort of statement is made in the negative or interrogative, can is used instead.

Can Mary be joking? Can she really mean that?

You can’t be serious!

It can’t be true!

3- ] Must can be used in the interrogative, but many speakers prefer have to instead.

Must you go so soon?

Must I invite Helen?

Do you have to go soon?

Do I have to invite Helen?

You can use must with a negative:

to forbid someone to do something.

You must not cross when the light is red.

You must not say things like that.

to talk about an event or state that is unacceptable.

There mustn’t be any mistakes in your letter.

The whale must not become extinct.

4- ] Note that to express the fact that you are not obliged to do something, you use do not have to.

Compare:

You must not come in here.

You don’t have to come in here (if you don’t want to).

It is necessary to change must to have to when changing sentences from direct to reported speech.

‘I must fill out those forms this evening,’ said Ian.

Ian said that he had to fill out some forms.

5- ]In one of its meanings ‘must’ has an imperative quality suggesting a command or an obligation . The negative ‘must not’ ( mustn’t ) expresses a prohibition , an obligation ‘not to do something’.

Examples

You must wipe your feet before coming into the house .

The pupils were told that they must write more neatly .

In England traffic must keep to the left .

You mustn’t walk on the grass .

Cars mustn’t be parked in front of this house .

There is a wonderful production of Hamlet at The National Theater . You must go and see it . It is something you mustn’t miss .

6- ] ‘Must’ implies a logical conclusion , a strong likelihood , something that seems the only reasonable explanation .

Examples

H wears the white uniform and goes to hospital every day ; he must be a doctor .

If Ahmad left here at four o’clock he must  be home by now .

You have worked hard all day ; you must be tired .

Adnan must be pleased that he has passed the examination .

Mr. Mahmoud was a grown man when I was a boy ; he must be at least seventy now .

Mr. Abbas mustn’t have received my letter , otherwise he would have replied before now .

I can hear the neighbors’ phone bell ringing but no one is answering it ; they mustn’t be at home .

7- ] When the negative of ‘must’ has the meaning ‘it is not necessary’ , ‘there is no obligation’ , ‘need not’ (needn’t) is used .

Examples

Must I be at the party by seven o’clock ? No , you needn’t be there by seven , but don’t be much later .

You needn’t do the work this evening ; tomorrow will be soon enough .

Must I answer all the questions ? No , you needn’t answer them all ; it will be sufficient if you do four of them .

You needn’t go home yet , but I must .

8- ] When the meaning of must is ‘logical conclusion’ , etc. the usual negative is ‘cannot’ (can’t) .

Affirmative . If Fayez left here at four o’clock he must be home by now .

Negative . If Fayez didn’t leave here until five o’clock he can’t be home yet .

Affirmative  . If he said that , he must be mistaken .

Negative  . If he said that , he can’t be telling the truth .

Must And [ Have To ].

1- ] Instead of ‘must’ the verb ‘have to’ is often used , especially for past or future or conditional since ‘must’ has no forms to express these concepts .

Examples

He will have to be told the truth .

We shall have to hurry if we are going to catch the twelve o’clock train .

I have [got[ to go to the dentist today about my bad tooth .

I had to go to the dentist yesterday about my bad tooth .

I shall have to go to the dentist soon about my bad tooth .

The dentist said that if my tooth got worse I should have to have it out .

Should / Would

The contracted negative form is:         shouldn’t.

The modal verb should is used in the following ways:

1- ]to talk about moral obligation with a meaning similar to ought to . Compare ought to on Ought to.

Examples

You should what the teacher tells you .

People who live in glass houses should not throw stones . [ Proverb ]

Why should I pay him ?

They should do what you suggest.

People should report this sort of thing to the police.

She suggested we should visit Aunty Irene more often.

Rob insisted that we should think of others before ourselves.

2- ]to give advice or instructions.

You should undo the top screws first.

You should keep your credit card separate from your chequebook.

3- ] to suggest that something follows on logically from what has just been said.

They left here at 6 o’clock, so they should be home now.

4- ] to show politeness in a conditional clause. This use is used in formal written communication.

If you should decide to go, please contact us.

Should you need more information, please call the manager.

Should can be used with the main verb after certain set expressions such as, it is a pity that, it is odd that, I am sorry/surprised that. This is a more formal use than the same expression without should.

It’s a pity that this should happen.

I was quite surprised that he should be doing a job like that.

5- ]Should + the perfect form of the main verb can be used to express regret about something that was done or not done. Compare with ought to.

He should have stopped at the red light.

You should have told me you were ill.

6- ]When changing sentences from direct to reported speech, should does not change.

Anna said that I should try to relax more.

Examples

Direct Speech                                                      Indirect Speech

I shall write                                                        I should write

I will write                                                          I would write

In indirect speech a pronoun in the first person is generally changed into a pronoun in the third person , in which case ‘will’ in the direct speech becomes ‘would’ in the indirect speech , etc.

Example

Direct : Salem said , ‘I shall write to her .

Indirect : Salem said that he would write to her .

- But not usually in the first Person Interrogative .

Example

Direct  : Shall I get you a taxi ?

Indirect : He asked whether he should get her a taxi .

7- ] In formal English, should can be used with I or we in conditional clauses, instead of the more common would. This form is usually, but not always, found together with an if clause.

I should love to visit Peru if I had the money.

I should be very cross if they didn’t give me a certificate.

We should hate to miss the play.

In this sense, would is more common in modern spoken English.

I would love to visit Peru.

I would be very cross if they didn’t give me a certificate.

We would hate to miss the play.

8- ] On occasions where ‘must’ might seem too peremptory should is used .

Example

Members who want tickets for the party should apply before September 1st to the Secretary .

9- ] ‘Would’ may indicate habitual action in the past .

Example

Every day he would get up at six o’clock and light the fire .

May And Might

may

The contracted negative form is:         none or mayn’t (rare).

might

The contracted negative form is:         mightn’t.

He mightn’t have enough money.

We might come and live here, mightn’t we, mum?

1- ] Both may and might can be used in requests and in expressions of possibility for the present and future.

Might I ask you your name?

The weather may/might be better tomorrow.

Craig may/might know his results soon.

We may/might go to the cinema tonight.

‘May I come with you?’ Nicky asked.

Nicky asked if she could come with them.

2- ] May and might are used as follows:

1- ] May is used to ask permission in a more formal way than can.

May I have a drink, please?

May I use your ruler? I’ve lost mine.

2- ] Might is occasionally used in formal situations.

Might I suggest a different solution?

3- ] May is used to give permission, particularly when applied to you, he, she, they or a proper noun, to show that the speaker is allowing something to happen.

You may go now.

Users may download forms from this website.

3- ] Both may and might are used to express the possibility of some future action; might is more tentative than may. ‘Might’ as well as ‘may’ is used to express a present or a future possibility .The use of ‘might’ in this case suggests rather more reserve or doubt on the part of the speaker than ‘may’ would .

Examples

‘Jane might pass her examination .’ ‘Yes , and pigs might fly .’

I’m not very hopeful about the plan , but it might be worth trying .  

The weather may/might be better tomorrow.

Craig may/might know his results soon.

We may/might go to the cinema tonight.

- ‘May’ is used with the perfect infinitive to express doubt at the present time about a possibility in the past .

Examples

‘Mohamad is late.’ ‘Yes , he may have been detained at the office or he may have missed his usual train .

Their house may have been sold , but I have been told about it .

- If ‘might’ is used with this construction there is often an implied negative .

Examples

Nader might have lent you the money if you had asked him . [ but you didn’t ask him ]

You shouldn’t have run across the road without looking round , you might have been knocked down by a car . [ but as it happened you were not ]

4- ] May is often used for politeness, to make an order appear as a request; might is used to make the speaker more remote from the request. There is a feeling that in making a request ‘might’ is rather more deferential and courteous than may as in May I see you for a few minutes , please ?

You might give that idea a bit more consideration.

You might want to move a bit closer to the screen.

5- ] Might is occasionally used when someone is trying to persuade another person to do something, perhaps with some degree of irritation. This use is a little old-fashioned.

You might give me some cake too, Lucy.

Anna, come on, you might tell me what he said!

6- ] When might is used in a conditional sentence, the if clause can be in the present or the past tense. Compare with could. See Can and could.

If Louisa comes, she might look after the children.

If Louisa came, she might look after the children.

7- ] When changing sentences from direct to reported speech ‘may’ usually becomes could.

‘May I come with you?’ Nicky asked.

Nicky asked if she could come with them.

8- ] Prohibition ( usually in official notices ) with not , ‘may’ is used .

Examples

Dogs may not be taken into these carriages .

People may not pick flowers in this park .

9- ] ‘May’ (‘might’ )  is used in exclamatory sentences to indicate a wish . In these examples ‘may’ is a subjunctive equivalent .

Examples

May all your dreams come true !

May you have a very happy birthday !

He hoped that we might have a very happy birthday .

‘And may there be no moaning of the bar

When I put out to sea .’ [ Tennyson , Crossing the Bar ]

‘ And , when he next doth ride abroad , May I be there to see !’ [ Cowper , John Gilpin ]

10- ] ‘May’ and ‘might’ are used in ‘that’ clauses following verbs like ‘trust’ and ‘hope’ .

Examples

I hope that he may get the job he wants .

I trust [ hope ] that you find this plan to your satisfaction .

He trusted [ hoped ] that we might find the plan to our satisfaction .

11- ] ‘May’ and ‘might’ are used in adverb clauses of purpose .

Examples

Lift little Ali up so that he may see the procession .

Salah is working late tonight so that he may be able to go to the football match tomorrow .

He saved all the money he could so that his son might have a good education .

She was studying English so that she might read English books .

Note  In such sentences ‘can ‘ [ could] is frequently used instead of ‘may’ [ might] .

12- ]’May’ and ‘might’ are also used in clauses of concession .

Example

He may be poor but [ = though he is poor ] he is honest .

It may be June but it’s bitterly cold .

Try as he may , he will not pass the examination .

Try as he might , he could not persuade his friends to go .

13- ] ‘Might’ [ but not ‘may’ ] is sometimes used to make a sentence expressing petulant reproach .

Examples

You might try to be a little more helpful [ = ‘Please try to ….’ ‘I wish you would be ……’ ]  

You might listen when I am talking to you .

You might have helped me with my work [ ……….but you didn’t ] .

He might at least have answered my letter [ ….but he didn’t ] .

Ought to

ought to

The contracted negative form is:         oughtn’t (to).

Oh dear, we oughtn’t to have let that happen.

Well then she ought to do something about it, oughtn’t she?

‘Ought’ is a defective verb having only this one form . It is always a special finite . It is used to express the idea of moral obligation , duty , desirability . In most cases ‘ought’ can be replaced by

‘should’ ; of the two ‘ought to’ is the rather more emphatic .’Ought’ is followed by the infinitive with ‘to’ , ‘should’ is followed by the infinitive without to .

Examples

They ought to [ should ] pay the money .

He ought to [ should ] be ashamed of himself .

You ought to [ should ] come for lessons at least three times a week .

I told him that he ought to [ should ] see you .

1- ] The use of ‘ought to’ is similar to should, but it is much less frequent.

Like should, the verb ought to does not have a past form. It is only used with reference to the present and the future.

2- ] Ought to is rarely used in questions and negatives. When it is, it is confined mainly to formal styles.

In negatives, not comes between ought and to. In questions, the subject comes between ought and to.

Examples

I ought not to have said those things to her.

Ought we to make such a sacrifice for the benefit of future generations?

3- ] Ought to is used as follows:

1- ] to express an obligation or an expectation that someone should do something.

Examples

You ought to listen carefully.

We ought to leave now.

Lucy ought to go by herself.

People ought to be a bit nicer to us.

2- ] to express the likelihood of something happening.

Examples

Annabel ought to be here by now.

The journey ought to take about 2 hours.

3- ] Ought to + have + past participle of main verb is used to express regret that something was not done or to reproach someone for doing or not doing something.

I ought to have spoken up earlier. I’m sorry.

You ought to have offered to help.

They ought to have told us what to expect.

4- ] In questions and negatives, should is frequently used instead of ought to because it sounds more natural.

Ought I to report it to someone in authority?

Should I report it to someone in authority?

Ought we to make a start?

Should we make a start?

5- ] ‘Ought’ is also used to express likelihood or strong probability .

Examples

If Shady left home at nine o’clock he ought to [ should ] be here any minute now .

There’s a fine sunset ; it ought to [ should ] be a fine day tomorrow .

Considering all the work you have done you oughtn’t to [ shouldn’t ] fail in your examination .

6- ] ‘Ought’ does not use ‘shall’ or ‘will’ for the future tense . A future idea is indicated by a word or phrase denoting the future .

Examples

Ahly Team ought to [ should ] win the match tomorrow .

Your new suit ought to [ should ] be ready on Friday .

You ought to [ should ] write to her as soon as you can .

7- ] To express a past obligation that was not fulfilled 

           ‘ought to’ [oughtn’t to ] or should [ shouldn’t + have + past participle is used .

Examples

I ought to [ should ] have written that letter yesterday [ = but I didn’t ] .

You ought to [ should ] have told me about this earlier [ = but you didn’t ] .

8- ] Ought not [ should not ] + have + past participle are used to express disapproval of something done in the past .

Examples

You ought not to have [ shouldn’t have ] spent all that money on such a foolish thing .

What you heard was confidential . You ought not have [ shouldn’t have ] repeated it .

Dare

‘Dare’ can be a full , normal verb , or it can be a special finite .

When ‘dare’ is a special finite it forms its third person singular without ‘-s’ and has all the other characteristics of the special finites except that

1- ] The constructions ‘…and so….. I’ , ‘neither ……I’ are not used with ‘dare’ .

2- ] The ‘adverbs of frequency’ come after it , not before it .

Examples of ‘dare’  as special finite .

Dare you climb that tree ? Dare he go and speak to her ?

How dare you say such a thing ?

‘You daren’t climb that tree , dare you ?’ ‘Yes , I dare.’

When ‘dare’ is a special finite it is followed by the infinitive without ‘to’ . When ‘dare’ is used as an ordinary verb , it is followed by to + infinitive .

 As a modal verb, dare has forms as follows:

I dare not go.   I dared not go.

He dare not go.           He dared not go.

Dare I do it?

Dare he do it?

Daren’t he do it?

‘dare’ can be conjugated like a normal verb .

As a main verb, dare has forms as follows:

I dare to do it.  I do not dare to do it.

He dares to do it.         He did not dare to do it.

He does not dare to do it.        Does he dare to do it?

He doesn’t dare to do it.          Doesn’t he dare to do it?

Examples

She didn’t dare to say a word , did she ?

He doesn’t dare to answer my letters .

We didn’t dare to ask if we could have a holiday .

1- ] There is another , slightly different meaning of ‘dare’ , viz. ‘to challenge’. Here , ‘dare’ has a personal object [ him , me , etc. ] . It is conjugated with ‘do’ and is followed by an infinitive with ‘to’ .

Examples

I dare him to ask the teacher to give us a holiday tomorrow .

He dared me to walk down the square in my pyjamas .

Do you dare me to swim to that rock and back again .

12- ] The expression ‘I daresay’ which means simply ‘perhaps’ , ‘it is probable’ should be noticed . The expression is not generally used with any pronoun except ‘I’ .

Examples

He is not here yet , but I daresay he will come later .

They haven’t widened this road yet , but I daresay they will some day .

‘Do you think Hassan will come and see us today ?’ ‘Oh , I daresay .’

Need

1- ] There are two verbs ‘need’ . One of them is normal and quite regular . It has all the parts of a normal verb and makes its interrogative and negative with ‘do’ . It means ‘to require’.

2- ]  As a main verb, need has forms as follows:

I need it.          I need to do it.

He needs it.      He needs to do it.

I do not need to go.      I do not need to do it.

He does not need to go.           Does he need to go?

Examples

I need a new suit .

Your hair needed cutting ; I am glad you had it cut .

You look tired ; you need a rest .

Did you need all the food you took for your camp ?

No , we didn’t need it all .

It is also used as an auxiliary verb and followed by the infinitive with to .

Examples

He doesn’t need to work so hard .

You don’t need to answer that question .

I needed to get new tyres for my car , the old ones were badly worn .

I didn’t need to tell him the news , he already knew it .

3- ] ‘Need’ also is a special finite . It is defective , having only the one form .The third person singular present tense does not take ‘-s’ . Its meaning is similar to ‘have to’ . It forms its interrogative by inversion and its negative by adding ‘not’ [ this form is almost always shortened to ‘needn’t’ ] . It can make question phrases or tags . When ‘need’ is followed by an infinitive , the infinitive is ‘plain’ [ i.e. without to ] .

As a modal verb, need has forms as follows:

I need not go.   Need I go?

He need not go.           Need he go?

He needn’t go. Needn’t he go?

Examples

Need he work so hard ?

Need I answer that question ?

Need you go so soon ?

He needn’t work so hard .

You needn’t go yet , need you ?

4- ] A peculiarity of the verb  ‘need’ as a special finite is that it is not used in affirmative sentences , only in negative and interrogative ones . In affirmative sentences it is replaced by ‘must’ or equivalents like ‘have to’ , ‘ought to’ and ‘should’ .

Examples

Need you go yet ? Yes , I must .

You needn’t see him , but I must .

5- ] ‘Need’ can , however be used affirmatively with adverbs such as ‘never’ ,‘hardly’ and ‘ scarcely’

which have negative implications .

Example

I hardly ( scarcely ) need say how much I enjoyed the holiday .

6- ] The past tense of ‘need’ as a special finite is need …… have .

Example

Need you have scolded him so severely for his bad work ; he had done his best ?

7- ] There is an idiomatic construction illustrating both the verbs ‘need’ .

Examples

He sent me the money he owed me , so I didn’t need to write to him for it . [ = I didn’t write ]

He sent me the money he owed me , so I needn’t have written . [ = I did write ]

We had plenty of bread , so I didn’t need to buy a loaf . [ I didn’t buy one ]

We had plenty of bread , so I needn’t have bought a loaf . [ I did buy one ]

Jamal went to the station with the car to meet Huda , so she didn’t need to walk to the house .

 [ = she didn’t walk ]

Jamal went to the station with the car to meet Huda , so she needn’t have walked . [ = she did walk ]

9- ] The form ‘needs’ is used in sentences is an adverb [ = of necessity ] not a verb .

Examples

Needs must when the devil drives .( Proverb ; it means ‘We must follow some certain course when there is no alternative .)

We needs must love the highest when we see it . [ Tennyson ]

Dare and need

The two verbs dare and need have characteristics of both modal verbs and main verbs. Because of this, they are called semi-modals. They sometimes behave like modal verbs and do not add -s to the form that goes with he, she, and it. That is, they have no 3rd person singular inflection. They are then followed by the base form of a main verb.

Need I say more?

Dare I ask how the project’s going?

The past form needed is not used as a modal; dared is occasionally used as a modal.

The modal uses of these verbs are all negatives or questions.

Where will you all be today? – Need you ask?

You needn’t come if you’re busy.

Dare I suggest that we have a rota system?

I daren’t tell him the truth; he’ll go crazy.

Questions that are formed with need and dare are often set expressions such as Need I/you ask?, Dare I suggest…? and Need I/we say more?

Dare and need sometimes behave like main verbs with -s inflection. In this case they are followed by the to infinitive. They can also use the auxiliary do and have the whole range of tenses appropriate to a main verb.

Louisa doesn’t need to know.

Does Paul need to go now?

Paul needs to go.

Dare to be different!

I don’t dare to mention it to him.

When dare or need are used as modal verbs in a positive statement, there must be a word of negative meaning in the same clause. This word can be outside the verb phrase and may be a word with a negative sense, such as only, never, hardly.

He need only ask and I will tell him.

No sensible driver dare risk that chance.

Either of the two forms of dare and need can be used for sentences that have much the same meaning.

Anna didn’t dare to jump off the high fence.

Anna dared not jump off the high fence.

You don’t need to come if you don’t want to.

You needn’t come if you don’t want to.

Used to

1- ] ‘Used’ is a doubtful member of the special finites . It is a special finite in that it forms its interrogative by inversion , has a contracted ‘not [ usedn’t ] in the negative , and can form question phrases or tags . The verb used to is a ‘marginal’ modal verb. Unlike the other modal verbs, it is only found in the past tense. Therefore, when it is used with do to make negatives and questions, the form of the auxiliary verb is always ‘did’ .

Used to takes the following forms:

The form used to is used with all subjects e.g. I, we, you, he, she, it, they.

I used to          We used to

You used to     You used to

She used to      They used to

I used to live in New Zealand.

He used to deliver newspapers papers but he owns the shop now.

Nancy and Bill used to live in California.

2- ] There are two forms for a negative:

did not/didn’t use to.

Examples

We didn’t use to have central heating when I was a child.

Alan didn’t use to like children, but it’s different now he has his own.

used not/usedn’t to.

I used not to be able to watch myself on TV at all.

We used not to worry much about money.

Things usedn’t to be so bad.

In negatives, the form with did is used the most. In questions, the form with did is almost always preferred.

The common contracted negative form is didn’t use to. The rarer contracted negative form is usedn’t to.

Examples

You used to live in London , usedn’t you ?

He usedn’t to smoke as much as he does now .

‘There used to be an old apple tree in the garden .’ ‘Oh , used there ?’

Used you to climb the old apple tree in the garden ?

You usedn’t to make that mistake .   

- The tendency is growing in spoken English to treat ‘used to’ as a normal finite

Examples

He didn’t use to smoke as much as he does now .

‘There used to be an old apple tree in the garden .’ ‘Oh , did there ?’

Did you use to climb the old apple tree in the garden ?

You didn’t use to make that mistake .

- We still feel a little uneasy about using ‘do’ and ‘did’ in negative in this way , we often try to avoid the difficulty by using ‘never’ .

Examples

You never used to make that mistake .

He never used to smoke as much he does now .

3- ]There are two forms for a question:

did + subject + use to + base form:

e.g. did he use to…?

Did they use to visit you often? – Well, Mary used to.

used + subject + to + base form:

e.g. used he to… ?

Used he to play the guitar?

4- ] There is no present form of ‘uses to’  . A repeated action in the present is expressed bt the simple present tense .

Used to is used as follows:

1- ] – to describe an activity or a state that happened many times in the past.

Gerry always used to go for a run before breakfast.

Peter didn’t use to say things like that when I knew him.

to refer to an activity or state that was true in the past but is no longer true.

I used to like rock climbing when I was younger.

You didn’t use to be so stressed!

5- ] The verb ‘used to’ should not be confused with the verb ‘use’ Do not also confuse used to + base form with be used to + present participle, where used to mean ‘accustomed to.’

Examples

I use the same shaving brush that I have used for ten years .

I think you have used your time well while you have been in England .

They lived in India for a long time, so they are used to eating spicy food.

Adam the gardener works better than I do in the garden ; he‘s used to doing hard work I’m not used to hard work , but I’ll get used to it in time .

The cat comes only when I call her ; she’s used to me , she’s not used to you .

6- ] The construction

                  verb to be / get  + used to + gerund

Examples

He is used to getting up early .

She gets used to coming in time .

7- ] ‘Would’ is sometimes used as a variant of ‘used to’ to express a repeated action in the past .

Example

The old man would go every day to the park to feed the birds .

8- ] ‘Would’ differs from ‘used to’ in that ;

1- ] ‘Would’ is generally used with a time phrase [ every day , etc. ] . This is not necessary with ‘used to’ .

2- ] ‘Would’ suggests willingness or voluntary action ; so it would be inappropriate to substitute ‘would’ for ‘used to’ in some sentences .

Example

When he lived by the river , he used to suffer from rheumatism .