American Division Poetry . [ 10 ]

American Division Poetry . [ 10 ] 

Elegy  

A lament over the death of someone [ although elegy once referred to poems written in elegiac meter-lines that alternate hexameter and pentameter  ] .

An example of elegy is Thomas Gray’s “ Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard” . Notice his use of the elegiac stanza [ four lines of iambic pentameter with an abab rhyme scheme .

Ex.   The curfew tolls the knell of parting day ,

               The lowing herd wind slowly o’er the lea ,

         The plowman homeward plods his weary way ,

                 And leaves the world to darkness and to me .

Elegies include some love poems about death .

Subtypes of elegy include :

 Dirges :  short songs expressing grief over someone .

 Pastoral elegy : Poems in which both the deceased and the mourners are presented as shepherds . These elegies often include mythology as part of the poetic structure .

American Division Literature . [ 9 ]

American Division Literature . [ 9 ] 

3-] Lyric Poetry .

Originally referring to songs sung to lyre music , now the term lyric refers to expressive , short non-narrative poems , however, lyric also includes longer works such as some elegies . Lyric poetry includes a blend of elements :

1-] Melodious tone . 2-] Spontaneously expressed emotion . 3-] Unified structure [ harmonious ] . 4-] Individualized . 5-] Subjective .

In the lyric mode , the tone is reflective , at times even introspective , with the speaker discussing an experience or expounding upon an idea . The broad range of poetic forms that fall under the label of lyric poetry is impressive ;but although not all lyric poetry is intended to be sung , the intrinsic musical elements of lyric poetry that are rooted in its musical origins should be recognized [ although not overstated ] .

Dramatic Monologues :   A person unintentionally reveals his or her character by expressing a poem at a critical moment . There may or may not be a silent auditor – the person to whom the monologue is being addressed . In Robert Browning’s “ My Last Duchess” the silent auditor is an agent for negotiating the Duke’[s next marriage arrangement .

American Division Literature . [ 8 ]

American Division Literature . [ 8 ] 

2-] Dramatic Poetry .

Some critics argue that the label “ dramatic poetry” is somewhat ambiguous . Of course , the term refers to poems that are dominated in content , style and structure by the dramatic form and / or by the many possible dramatic techniques such as dialogue and blank verse . Other critics would go so far as to include poetic drama [ plays written in verse ] under this large category that is held together by the special elements of dramatic mode .

The dramatic mode of poetry [ whether poems that are dramatic or poetic drama can include:1-]Dialogue written in verse [ usually blank verse in the poetic drama ] .

2-] Monologues – long speeches uttered by one person . Unlike poems that contain dramatic elements , poetic drama is meant to be acted out . Works such as Shelley’s Prometheus Unbound [ [ written in 1820 ] and Milton’s Samson Agonistes  [ written in 1671 ] , however , are dramas that are not meant to be acted out . This genre is called the closet drama .

American Division Literature . [ 7 ]

American Division Literature . [ 7 ]

Genre .

The major genres of poetry are defined by patterns of rhythm , rhyme , physical form and subject .

There are three major groups or divisions of poems : classifications that can be further subdivided into many different genres :

 Epic poetry [ written in the narrative mode ] .

 Dramatic poetry [ written in the dramatic mode ] .

 Lyric poetry [ written in the lyric mode ] .

1-]Epic Poetry .

An epic poem is a long poem written in the narrative mode . The characteristics of an epic poem include :

 Elevated style .  Adventurous plot .  Heroic figures .  A legendary main character .  An expansive setting .  Supernatural “ machinery” .

- The narrative as an “ objective” account .

Examples of epic poetry are The Illiad & Odessey by Homer and Paradise Lost & Paradise Regained by John Milton .

Epic poetry usually follows a “ formula” and utilizes a variety of epic conventions :

 A statement of the theme [ called the argument ] begins the epic .

 An epic question is posed to “ invoke” a Muse .

 The story begins in the middle of the action , with explanations given later .

 The main characters give very long , very formal speeches .

 The names of warriors , ships and so forth are listed .

 Throughout the narrative , the poet uses very complex , multi-level epic similes [ extended comparisons ] .

Folk Epics [ Traditional or Primary Epics ].

They were handed down orally and often are of uncertain authorship . Literary epics are imitations of these . The importance of the epic to English poetry should not be underestimated . In the Renaissance , the epic was highly esteemed by critics and has influenced English writers over the years . To cite an example , Milton was influenced by Virgil’s “ The Aeneid” when he wrote  “ Paradise Lost” in 1667 .

The length and complexity of an epic , however , is quite imposing ,hence the birth of the “ mock epic” or mock heroic poem . Example of this { Alexander Pope’s “ The Rape of a Lock” .Forms of high burlesque , these poems apply the conventional forms and styles of an epic to comparatively mundane , unimportant subjects . The grandiose treatment of insignificant subjects creates a comic disparity .

The influence of the epic poem on other narrative poem modes is arguable . Some narrative poems are rooted deeply in the epic traditions ; others are not.  Poems in the narrative mode range from folkloric poems to beast-fabless in verse to “ court epics” to verse novels [ such as Elizabeth Barrett Browning’s Aurora Leigh ] .

American Division Literature . [ 6 ]

American Division Literature . [ 6 ] 

Forms of Verse .

Poetry  has a regular rhythm that can be measured and a rhyme scheme .

A poem is written in lines and stanzas . When the subdivision is irregular and unrhymed they may call it not as a stanza but a “ strophe” .

 Prose poetry .  The prose poem would seem to be an oxymoron . Poetry written in paragraphs [ with left and right margin justification ] , without the line breaks of regular verse , the prose poem relies on its compact intensity and repetition of rhyme and figurative elements .

Ex . ‘ Bell-Tones” by L . E . Myers .

                                            Bell-Tones .

Bells have been ringing and marking time in my life Bells to

Come for and bells to go by . Bells to ring and bells to hear .

Easy bell-tones turn to clattering bells , ringing , finally

becoming muted into man soft death knells .

Although visually made to look like prose , this prose poem contains such major poetic elements as personification , onomatopoeia and alliteration and the intensity of meaning [ symbolism ] etc. 

 Free Verse .  Free verse is just that – free of a regular meter . Also called   “ open form” or “ verse libre” , free verse is characterized by short , irregular lines , no rhyme pattern and a dependence on the effective and more intense use of pauses – words selected not only for meaning but for how that meaning is intensified by their position in the poem .

Notice the use of free verse in “ Know Yourself “ by L. E. Myers .

There is a

truth

with us

and in us

Is this the truth ?

There is a

lie

with us

but not in us .

Is this the truth ?

 Blank Verse : It is written in iambic pentameter , but with no rhyme pattern . It is the major verse form used by Shakespeare in his plays . In blank verse , divisions are referred to as verse , paragraphs [ although the verse paragraph can also be in free verse ] . Blank verse made its appearance in English literature first in drama , then epics and since has been used frequently in a wide variety of long poems .

An example is William Wordsworth’s lengthy poem “ Lines Composed a Few Miles above Tintern Abbey on Revisiting the Banks of the Wye During A Tour, July 13 , 1798 .”

                            Five years have passed , five summers , with the length

              Of five long winters ! and again I hear

              These waters rolling from their mountain-springs

               With a soft inland murmur , Once again

               Do I behold these steep and lofty cliffs ,

               That on a mild secluded scene impress

               Thoughts of more deep seckusion ; and connect

                The landscape with the quiet of the sky .

 Qualitative Verse :  This verse has a measurable rhythm with an identifiable rhyme scheme . The poem is presented in a known stanza . The verse is accentual-syllabic : it depends on [1] how many syllables are in each line and [2] the accented and unaccented syllables forming patterns . [ Do not confuse this with quantitive verse that imitates Greek and Latin versification , depending on the duration od sound ] .

A significant aspect of form in poetry is the form of stanza .

 

Stanza	No. of Lines	Meter	Rhyme Scheme
Ballad	four lines	Lines 1 and 3 iambic tetrameter  Lines 2 and 4 iambic trimeter	a b c b
Elegiac	four lines	iambic pentameter	a b a b
Terza Rima	three lines	iambic pentameter	a b a , b c b / c d c , e d
Rhyme Royal	seven lines	iambic pentameter	a b a b b c c
Ottava Rima	eight lines	iambic pentameter	a b a b a b c c
Spenserian	nine lines	lines 1 -8 iambic pentameter line 9 iambic hexameter [ an Alexandrine ]	a b a b b c b c c

 

Other terms referring to the number of lines in a stanza include :

Tristich [ triplet ] = three lines

Quatrain = four lines

Quintain [ quintet ] = five lines

Sextain [ sestet ] = six lines 

American Division Literature . [ 4 ]

American Division Literature . [ 4 ] 

 Iambic foot [ x / ] unstressed , stressed .

  x  /      x      /   x     /      x      /

Iambic   is   a  line  of   verse .

   x       /      x    /          x       /

This first  is weak , then strong .

 x    /    x          /         x      /   x    /

If this light rhyme you do rehearsal .

            x      /     x     /    x       /

   You’re  sure to  do no wrong .

 Anapestic foot [ x x / ] unstressed , unstressed , stressed .

   x       x         /     x   x      /        x   x        /     x   x   /

With two weak and a strong we will learn anapest .

   x  x     /      x       x         /       x     x   /

As we take this small verse right along  .

   x     x       /        x       x         /       x x    /   x  x      /

Feel the beat , mark the  stress , anapest is the best .

    x    x     /  x      x        /   x  x    /

With a rhythm that can be a song .

 Trochaic foot [ / x ] stressed , unstressed .

       /        x         /       x           /      x     /   x

Strong then weak should bring no terror .

      /       x    /    x  /  x

Verse that is trochaic .

   /    x          /        x       /    x    /    x

Up then down – you will not error –

   /   x    /     x   / x

Never be prosaic .

 Dactylic foot [ / x x ] , stressed , unstressed , unstressed .

   /     x        x        /   x    x      /   x        x       /      x  x

He could write verses like Alfred , Lord Tennyson  ,

  /     x  x   /      x        x         /          x    x    /      x  x

Dactylic foot that could march clear to Dennison .

     /     x     x      /      x    x        /      x   x        / x x

Rhythms he  kept and to rhyme he was dutiful –

      /       x     x       /       x    x       /        x    x    /      x x

That’s why his work was so strong and so beautiful .

 Spondaic foot [ // ] stressed , stressed .

    x        /     x     /   x      /  x    /

When two successive syllables

     x    /    x       x        /     x    x   /   x     /

With equal strong stresses occur in verse ,

       /            /           /     x    /

Strong , strong spondee foot .

       /      x      /    x      /

Comes to mind at first .

 Pyrrhic foot [ xx ] unstressed , unstressed .

Some experts in scanning argue that true pyrrhic foot does not exist because every foot must have an accented syllable .

            After determining the type of foot , you need to identify how many feet are in each line .

Traditionally : one foot = monometer / two feet = diameter / three feet = trimeter / four feet = tetrameter / five feet = pentameter / 6 feet = hexameter /

seven feet = septameter / eight feet = octameter .

Ex . Look at the first line of “ The Wife of Usher’s Well .”

There lived / a wife / at Ush / er’s Well .

There are four feet in this line : tetrameter .

Consequently , the meter or metrical pattern of the line is iambic tetrameter

[  unstressed , stressed ] foot ( iambic ) / four feet [ tetrameter ] = iambic tetrameter. 

Because “ iambic” and “ anapestic” meters end on a high stress [ rising stress ] , they are often referred to as the “ rising meters” or rhythms , whereas dactylic and trochaic are falling meters or rhythms as the end on a low stress . The meter used , the metrical pattern can directly affect the mood , the tone and / or the meaning .

American Division Literature . [ 3 ]

American Division Literature . [ 3 ]

Chapter Two .

Poetry .

    Four common areas that you can examine to determine a poem’s form as it relates to and affects meaning are rhythm , rhyme scheme , physical form and genre [ defined by patterns of rhythm , rhyme , physical form and subject ].

Rhythm .

            Poetry has rhythm – a variation of stressed and unstressed sounds that has some type of regular pattern . The study of the rhythms and sounds of poetry is called prosody ; the system used to describe rhythm is called scansion . When you scan a line of poetry , you first identify which kind of foot is being used . A foot is the unit formed by a strong stress or accent and the weak stress[ es ] or unaccented syllable[ s ] that accompany it . You identify the type or kind of foot that is being used as you “ walk” along the individual line of poetry .

          The first step in scanning is to determine the accented or stressed sounds . This is done by placing an accent mark over each stressed syllable .

          Several factors will influence which syllables are stressed or accented in aline of poetry . These include the normal accents associated with the word , particularly in polysyllabic words such as es – tab – lish or stee – ple [ when the poet used context to change the normal accent of a word it is called wrenched accent ] , the grammatical functions of the words [ prepositions and articles are generally not stressed as strongly as nouns and verbs ] , rhetorical accents [ stresses based on meaning ] , and metrical accents [ stresses established in the context of the poem ] .

         The first step in scanning is to determine the accented or stressed sounds. This is done by placing an accent mark over each stressed syllable       [ / ] . Next , identify the unstressed syllables by placing [ x ] . over each . Then , look for a pattern . In this stanza of “ The Wife of Usher’s Well” , there seems to be a pattern of an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable . Divide the groups of unstressed and stressed syllables into feet by using a slash mark [ called a virgule ] .

     x        /        x    /         x     /       x           /

There lived /  a  wife   / at Ush /  er’s  Well .

    x     x      /           x    /         x     /

And  a    weal   / thy  wife  / was she ;

x        /           x        /        x     /

And sent  / them o’er /  the  sea .

There are many different kinds of feet , but the most common to English poetry are illustrated by L.E . Myers in the following five stanzas called “ stressed and unstressed  .”

American Division Literature . [ 2]

American Division Literature . [ 2] 

Literature For Study :

- 1500 English Renaissance .English Golden Age Elizabeth [ 1558 – 1603 ] .            [ Shakespeare – Raleigh ]

- 1600 English Renaissance continues to 1660 . Jacobean Age of King James          [ 1603 – 1625 ]

- Caroline Age [ 1625 – 1649 ] .                                                                                  - English Commonwealth Period [ 1649 – 1660 ] .                                                    -Restoration England [ 1660 – 1700 ] .

-Neoclassicism in art and literature . American Colonialism .

Captain John Smith and Cotton Mather .

- 1700 English Neoclassicism continues to 1798 .

- Augustan Age [ 1700 – 1745 ] – emphasis on Latin literature [ Age of Pope]

-Age of Sensibility [ 1745 – 1798 ] . Samuel Johnson .

- American Colonialism ends [ 1775 ] . Nationalism begins .

-Franklin and Jefferson [ American Revolution [ 1775 ] .

-1800 English Romantic Period to 1832 .

Revolt against Neoclassicism in art and literature . Wordsworth and Byron .

-American Transcendentalism and Romanticism [ 1823 – 1865 ]. Ralph Waldo Emerson .

-Holmes and Poe [ American Civil War [ 1861 – 1865 ] .

-Victorian England [ 1832 – 1901 ] .Emphasis on respectability . Dickens  , Browning , Rossetti .

=American Realism [ 1865 – 1900 ] . Art and literature mirror life . Twain and Hawthorne .

-1900 Edwardian England [ 1901 – 1910 ] . Emphasis on elegance . Yeats and Kipling .

-American Naturalism to 1930 . Literature includes environmental realism.      - England’s Georgian Age to 1940 .

- Modern literature [ 1914 – 1965 ] .

- Postmodern literature [ 1965 – up till now .

American Division Literature [ 1 ]

American Division Literature [ 1] 

Vocabulary & Literature .

In understanding and discussing works of literature , vocabulary can be divided into the following four areas :

1-] Basic literary terms and related vocabulary .

2-] Advanced literary terms and related vocabulary .

3-] Extensive general vocabulary .

4-] Period vocabulary and poetic diction .

The Old English Period [ A.D. 449 – 1100 ]

            The British Celts , under attack by the Picts and Scots [ Irishmen ] , called on fierce Germanic warriors , when the Romans would not provide adequate help in A. D . 449 . After driving out the Picts and Scots , these Germanic Angles , Saxons and Jutes took over England and established the seven kingdoms of Kent , Essex , Sussex , Wessex , East Anglia , Mercia and Northumbria [ names that appear throughout English literature – even in those works written in Modern English ] .

The Middle English Period [ A.D. 1100 – 1500 ]

             Middle English began shortly after the Norman Conquest [ William the Conqueror ] in 1066 .Naturally , the impact was felt in the language , especially in vocabulary . During this time , the dialect of London became a standard English : however , writers continued to use their regional dialects    [ North , South , Kent , West Midland , and East Midland ] almost until the end of the period . Chaucer’s “ The Canterbury Tales [ 1386 ]” .

Modern English [ A.D. 1500 – 1800 ]

              English language underwent important changes during this time , especially changes in pronunciation , perhaps the most radical change being what linguistics call “ The Great Vowel Shift .” But while English was changing significantly in pronunciation , spelling in 1500s was not keeping pace . English spelling and usage was not standardized until Samuel Johnson was commissioned in 1746 to write “A Dictionary of The English Language”.

Modern English [ 1800 to present ]

                In terms of form and structure of English , the Modern English Period has seen little radical change with forms of standardized English being sustained in both England [ where British Standard is taught in schools ] and in the US [ where American English is the offspring of the British-speaking colonists and explorers of the 17^th century ] .

                  Surprising to some , words in American usage have found their way into the British vocabulary , partly as a result of advanced communications , commerce and American technology . Even so , there are significant differences between British and American word choices , even in Modern English and of course pronunciation [ e.g. British “ posh frock , American fancy dress ] .Spelling is another area of differences , due in part to Noah Webster , who took the “ u” out of e.g. colour [ color ] armour [ armor ] neighbour [ neighbor ] , changed “ re” to “ er” in theatre , centre , metre , manoeuvre [ theater , center , meter , manoeuver ] and changed the “ c” to “s” in “ defence” “ defense” [ to cite just a few of his influences ] . British English and American English have undergone and continue to undergo tremendous changes in the denotative and connotative values of English words . How and why do words change meaning and how are new words added to the English vocabulary ? Here are some of the more common ways :

1-] Words often have more than one meaning and usage can add even more meanings .

e.g. The word [ firebreak = a barrier meant to stop a fire in forest fire fighting ( often a gap in the combustible trees or vegetation)] .In the Nuclear Age it extended to mean : a barrier or gap separating conventional warfare and buclear war , meant to stop nuclear confrontation . Sometimes words gain so many meanings that they become very generalized and no longer carry the preciseness of meaning that once conveyed .

2-] Obviously , the meanings  of a word can also be reduced becoming rare , archaic  or even obselete .

e.g. buckle [ verb ] , brut  / bruckled [ griny ] , brut [ to browse ] .

corn “ once meant grain ; then it came to mean Indian corn or maize in America , wheat in England and oats in Scotland .

3-] Entirely new words can be coined or added to the language often due to new technologies  , exportations or any circumistances in which a never-before-communicated idea must be expressed , illustrated by the word             “ Kodak” invented by George Eastman in 1888 .

4-] words once thought to have negative connotations can be elevated in the public’s perception and become respectable for use [ e.g. nice once meant ignorant ] or the opposite when words fall into disrepute [ hussy once meant housewife ] .                                                                                                              5-] Words can come into use to avoid the negative connotations of harsher words . For example the Irish began referring to the little people  rather than saying fairie . the gentler kinder word is called a euphemism .

6-] New uses of prefixes , suffixes and compounding can add to a language’s vocabulary .

e.g. panorama / snacketeria  / splash down .

7-] Words also can be added to a vocabulary by abbreviation or clipping [ exam ] , blending [ broasted = broiled + roasted ] and by using acronyms

 [ NOAA = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ] .

8-] Borrowing from other languages has been a significant influence on English .

e.g. fork [ furca , from Latin ] .frankfurter [ from German ] .ffle [ rafle from French ] .spaghetti [ from Italian ] .serape [ from Mexican Spanish ] .