- Short Story , I Never Forget A Face -Art of Writing [3 ]

3- ] Art of Writing .

Examples Of Short Stories .

I Never Forget A Face .

By : Cyril Hare .

I’ll tell you a strange thing about me – I never forget a face . The only trouble is that usually I’m quite unable to tell you the name of the person . I know what you’re going to say – you suffer from the same thing yourself . Lots of people do , to some extent . But I’m not like that . When I say I never forget a face , I mean it . I can pass a fellow in the street one day and recognize him again months after , though we’ve spoken to each other . My wife says sometimes that I ought to be a reporter for the newspapers and wait about at first nights at cinemas , looking for all the famous people who go to see the films . But , as I tell her , I should not be able to do very well at that . I should see the famous man or woman , but I should not be able to say which one it was . That’s my trouble , as I say – names .

Of course , this trouble with names has put me in difficulties from time to time  But with a little skill one can usually get out of the difficulty in one way or another . In my work , moving round the City doing bits of business , I have to be very clever not to let a man see that I can’t remember whether his name is Smith or Moses . I’ve annoyed people in that way and lost good business more than once . But on the whole , I think I gain more than I lose by this strange memory of mine .

Quite often I’ve approached a man who didn’t know me at all . I’ve said :    “ I think we’ve met before ,” and I’ve been able to give him some idea of where it was . I can always connect a face with a place , you see . Well , as I was saying , I can approach this fellow and remind him of a big dinner or a football match or whatever it is that his face reminds me of , and probably within five minutes we’re talking about business . I can usually find out his name late on . My memory for faces helps me a lot in business .

You can guess that there’s not a man , woman or child here in Bardfield that I don’t know by sight . I’ve lived in Bardfield ever since the Second World War . I like the place ; although it’s only forty minutes from London , there’s a lot of country here . The village is almost a mile from the station , and that’s rather troublesome . But quite a pleasant crowd of men travel up and down to the City most days , and I needn’t tell you that I don’t know the names of half of them , though we speak to each other cheerfully enough . My wife complains that I don’t know the names of our neighbors in the next house , and that’s true .

 Well , on this particular evening I’d been kept a bit late at the office , and it was difficult to get to the station in time to catch the train . There was quite a crowd on the train at first , but they gradually got out ; and by the time we reached Ellingham – that’s two stations before mine – there were only two of us left in the carriage . The other fellow wasn’t one of the regular travellers , but I knew he was a Bardfield man . I knew it as soon as I saw him , of course . I’d smiled at him when I saw him get into the carriage in London , and he had smiled back . But that didn’t tell me his name .

 The annoying thing was that I couldn’t remember where I knew this fellow’s face from , if you understand what I mean . His face told me clearly that he was connected with Bardfield , but that was all it told me . I could not think where in Bardfield I had seen it . I guessed he must be one of those fellows who’ve come to live lately in the small houses by the bus-stop , but I couldn’t be sure . Some of us who’ve lived in the place for a long time are rather unfriendly towards  newcomers , but that’s not my way – never has been . I never know where the next bit of business is going to come from , and it may come from one of them . I can’t afford to neglect chances .

So when the two of us found ourselves alone in the carriage , with room to stretch our legs and a bit comfortable . I started to talk , just as if we were old friends . But I can’t say that I got much information out of him . He spoke well with a quiet friendly manner , but he told me very little . I can generally find out what a man’s work is in ten and a half minutes – that’s the time it takes from Ellingham to Bardfield by train – but I failed this time.  He looked a bit tired , I remember , as if he’d been working too hard lately , and I thought maybe that made him unwilling to talk much .

“ Do you generally travel down on this train ?” I asked him . That’s usually a safe opening to a conversation , because either they do travel or they don’t , and nine times out of ten they’ll tell you why, and what hours they work , and what their work is . It’s only human nature . But he just smiled and shook his head and said , “ Not generally,” which wasn’t much help .

Of course , I went on to talk about the train service in general , comparing this train with that , but still he said nothing . He just agreed with all I said , but he didn’t seem to have any opinions of his own . I told him I sometimes went up to the City by road , but that didn’t make him talk either . I didn’t think it would , because you don’t expect a fellow who lives in a cheap house to own a car .

 Well , in the end , I had to give up. I’d told him a lot about myself , of course , so as to make things pleasant . I’d boasted a little about a rather nice bit of business I’d done that morning . I’ve always found that there’s nothing as good as boasting to start a fellow talking . It makes him want to boast too . He seemed interested in a quiet sort of way , but it was no good . So I stopped talking and started to read my paper . And the next time I looked at him , he’d put his head back and gone off to sleep !

We were just coming into the station then , and though the train stopped rather suddenly , it didn’t seem to wake him . Well , I’m a kind-hearted fellow and I wasn’t going to let a Bardfield man be carried on all the way to the next stop if I could help it . So I touched him sharply on the knee .

“Wake up , old fellow ! We’re there !”I said .

He awoke at once and smiled at me .

“Oh , so we are!” he said , and got out after me .

You know what the weather was like just then . When we came out of the station together it was quite dark and raining heavily . There was a wind blowing strong enough to knock you over , and it was bitterly cold .

Well , what would you have done ? The same as I did . I turned round and said to him :

“ Listen . There isn’t a bus for a quarter of an hour . I’ve got my car in the station-yard , and if you’re in one of those small houses I can take you there. It’s on my way .”

“ Thanks very much .” he said , and we walked through the water to where my old car was standing and off we went .

“ This is very kind of you ,” he said as we started , and that was the last thing he said until we were halfway across the open country .

Then he suddenly turned round and said , “You can let me get out here .”

“What , here ?” I asked him . It seemed mad , because there wasn’t a house within five hundred yards and , as I say , it was raining and blowing like the end of the world . But I slowed down , as anyone would .

The next thing that happened was that something hit me really hard on the back of the head . I fell forwards and then everything went black . I can half-remember being pulled out of the car , and when I came to my senses again I was lying in the ditch with the rain pouring down on me , with a bad headache , no car in sight and my pockets – as I found out later empty .

I pulled myself up at last and somehow managed to walk into Bardfield . I went straight to the police station , of course . It’s the first building you reach if you come that way . And there I reported that someone had stolen my car , a new umbrella , a gold watch and a hundred and fifty-two pounds ten shillings in notes .

Of course , as soon as I got there I remembered who the man was . His picture was on the wall outside . I’d seen it every day for a week . That’s why his face reminded me of Bardfield . Under the picture were some words: “ Wanted for Robbery with Violence and Attempted Murder. John” Oh dear , I’ve forgotten the name again . I just can’t keep names in my head. But that’s the man . I tell you – I never forget a face .

Commentary

These two short stories are good examples of the elements of short story. Both of them have the exposition , the complication , the climax and the denouement or the resolution of the conflict – a beginning , a middle and an end .They have setting , characters , conflict , plot and theme . As for the first story “ The Man With The Scar ” , in the exposition a man with a scar is introduced . We do not know why he has this scar . Then , we know that he was a general from Nicaragua and was exiled as the coup in which he took part failed . In the climax he was to be executed . In the event of the execution the lady whom he loved came . He loved her so dearly that he killed her while his lips were pressed to hers . In the end or the denouement  the general to carry out the execution saw that and admired their love and his character . He commanded they take his car and led him to the frontiers with Guatemala where he was exiled . We know at the end that the scar was as a result of a cut from a bottle .

In the second story , in the exposition a man is introduced who can remember faces not names . Then , in the climax he meets a man in the underground . He feels that he saw  this man somewhere  in Bardfield . He tries to know or remember , but he failed . In the climax the man hit him and robbed him of all his belongings . In the end or the denouement when he goes to inform the police he finds the picture of the man on the wall of the police station wanted for robbery with violence and attempted murder .

The two stories have two different themes , the first has the theme of “ true love and faithfulness” , while the other has the theme of “ self-deceit”. We find out that the man does not even remember not only names but also faces.  The thief hit him and robbed him of every thing.

Short Story , The Man With The Scar - Art of Writing [ 2 ]

2- ] Art of Writing .

Examples Of Short Stories .

The Man With The Scar .

By : W. Somerset Maugham .

It was on account of the scar that I first noticed him , for it ran , broad and red , in a great crescent from his temple to his chin . It must have been due to a formidable wound and I wondered whether this had been caused by a sabre or by a fragment of shell . It was unexpected on that round , fat and good-humored face . He had small and undistinguished features , and his expression was artless . His face went oddy with his corpulent body . He was powerful man of more than common height . I never saw him in anything but a very shabby grey suit , a khaki shirt and a battered sombrero . He was far from clean . He used to come into the Palace Hotel at Guatemala City every day at cocktail time and strolling leisurely round the bar offer lottery tickets for sale . If this was the way he made his living it must have been a poor one for I never saw anyone buy , but now and then I saw him offered a drink . He never refused it . He threaded his way among the tables with a sort of rolling walk as though he were accustomed to traverse long distance on foot , paused at each table , with a little smile mentioned the numbers he had for sale and then , when no notice was taken of him , with the same smile passed on . I think he was for the most part a trifle the worse for liquor .

    I was standing at the bar on e evening , my foot on the rail , with an acquaintance – they make a very good dry Martini at the Palace Hotel in Guatemala City – when the man with the scar came up . I shook my head as for the twentieth time since my arrival he held out for my inspection his lottery tickets . But my companion nodded affably .

‘ Qué tal , general ? How is life ? ‘

‘ Not so bad . Business is none too good , but it might be worse .’

‘ What will you have , general ?’

‘ A brandy .’

He tossed it down and put the glass back on the bar . He nodded to my acquaintance .

‘ Gracias . Hasta luego .’

Then he turned away and offered his tickets to the men who were standing next to us .

‘ Who is your friend ?’ I asked . ‘ That’s a terrific scar on his face .’

‘ It doesn’t add to his beauty , does it ? He’s an exile from Nicaragua . He’s a ruffian of course and a bandit , but not a bad fellow . I give him a few pesos now and then . He was a revolutionary general , and if his ammunition hadn’t given out he’d have upset the government and be Minister of War now instead of selling lottery tickets in Guatemala . They captured him , along with his staff , such as it was , and tried gim by court-martial . Such things are rather summary in these countries , you know , and he was sentenced to be shot at dawn . I guess he knew what was coming to him when he was caught . He spent the night in Gaol and he and the others , there were five of them altogether , passed the time playing poker . They used matches for chips . He told me he’d never had such a run of bad luck in his life ; they were playing with a short pack , Jacks to open , but he never held a card ; he never improved more than half a dozen times in the whole sitting and no sooner did he buy a new stack than he lost it . When day broke and the soldiers came into the cell to fetch them for execution he had lost more matches than a reasonable man could use in a lifetime .

       ‘ They were led into the patio of the goal and placed against a wall , the five of them side by side , with the firing-party facing them . There was a pause and our friend asked the officer in charge of them what the devil they were keeping him waiting for . The officer said that the general commanding the government troops wished to attend the execution and they awaited his arrival .

‘ Then I have time to smoke another cigarette ,” said our friend . “ He was always unpunctual .”

‘ But he had barely lit it when the general – it was San Ignacio , by the way : I don’t know whether you ever met him – followed by his A.D.C. came unto the patio . The usual formalities were performed and San Ignacio asked the condemned men whether there was anything they wished before the execution took place . Four of the five shook their heads , but our friend spoke .

“ Yes , I should like to say good-bye to my wife .”

“ Bueno ,” said the general ,” I have no objection to that . Where is she ?”

“ She is waiting at the prison door .”

“ Then it will not cause a delay of more than five minutes .”

“ Hardly that , Señor General ,” said our friend .

“ Have him placed on one side .”

‘ Two soldiers advanced and between them the condemned rebel walked to the spot indicated . The officer in command of the firing-squad on a nod from the general gave an order , there was a ragged report , and the four men fell . They fell strangely , not together , but one after the other , with movements that were almost grotesque , as though they were puppets in a toy theatre . The officer went up to them and into one who was still alive emptied two barrels of the revolver . Our friend finished his cigarette and threw away the stub .

‘ There was a little stir at the gateway . A woman came into the patio , with quick steps , and then , her hand on her heart , stopped suddenly . She gave a cry and with outstretched arms ran forward .

“ Garamba ,” said the General .

‘ She was in black , with a veil over her hair , and her face was dead white . She was hardly more than a girl , a slim creature , with little regular features and enormous eyes . But they were distraught with anguish . Her loveliness was such that as she ran , her mouth slightly open and the agony of her face beautiful , a gasp of surprise was wrung from those indifferent soldiers who looked at her .

    ‘ The rebel advanced a step or two to meet her . She flung herself into his arms and with a hoarse cry of passion : alma de mi corazón , soul of my heart , he pressed his lips to hers . And at the same moment he drew a knife from his ragged shirt – I haven’t a notion how he managed to retain possession of it – and stabbed her in the neck . The blood spurted from the cut vein and dyed his shirt . Then he flung his arms round her and once more pressed his lips to hers .

‘ It happened so quickly that many did not know what had occurred , but from the others  burst a cry of horror ; they sprang forward and seized him.  They loosened his grasp and the girl would have fallen if the A.D.C. had not caught her . She was unconscious . They laid her on the ground and with dismay on their faces stood round watching her . The rebel knew where he was striking and it was impossible to staunch the blood . In a moment the A.D.C. who had been kneeling by her side rose .

“ She’s dead ,” he whispered .

‘ The rebel crossed himself .

“ Why did you do it ?” asked the general .

 “ I loved her .”

‘ A sort of sigh passed through those men crowded together and they looked with strange faces at the murderer . The general stared at him for a while in silence .

“ It was a noble gesture ,” he said at last . “ I cannot execute this man . Take my car and have him led to the frontier . Senõr , I offer you the homage which is due from one brave man to another .”

‘ A murmur of approbation broke from those who listened . The A.D.C. tapped the rebel on the shoulder , and between the two soldiers without a word he marched to the waiting car .’

    My friend stopped and for a little I was silent . I must explain that he was a Guatemalan and spoke to me in Spanish . I have translated what he told me as well as I could , but I have made no attempt to tone down his rather high-flown language . To tell the truth I think it suits the story .

‘ But how then did he get the scar ?’ I asked at length .

‘ Oh , that was due to a bottle that burst when I was opening it . A bottle of ginger ale .’

‘ I never liked it ,” said I .

American Division Literature [ 24 ]

24- ] American Division Literature .

Some Literary Terms .

Characterization .

Characterization is character development in a story . It can be accomplished through many different methods or techniques . Disclosure of character through stereotyping , exposition , the character’s actions , words and thoughts , the words of others and the use of setting . In exposition the author tells the reader about the character or exposes the character . This may include descriptions of the person’s background , motivating forces , personality traits , relationships and physical characteristics .

Kinds of Characters .

1-] Flat Character:  It is only described without the kind of details you would need to see him or her as an individual .The character does not develop.

The roles are often played by “extras” , although sometimes named stars . They assume these roles as “ cameo” spots . An example is “ servants” ,  “ apprentices” etc.

2-] Round Character :  In extreme contrast to the flat character , the round character is three-dimensional , complex and extremely lifelike . Unlike the flat character , the round character is complex and changes or grows in the course of the story . Generally , the main characters are round . Naturally, shades of “ flatness” or “ roundness” abound along the continuum between these two extremes with the plot and the intent of the writer largely dictating the degree to which a character is developed .

3-] Stock Character:  A conventional stereotype character . The stock character is expected to appear in certain literary forms , such as the “ villain” in the melodrama and “ the prince charming” in fairy tales . A stock character is one that is frequently used in literary traditions , but who does not necessarily represent a particular class or group .

4-] Type Character : A type character embodies or exhibits the characteristics of a particular class or group of people . A type character may be very individualized and unpredictable in personality and action and still be representative of the class or group to which he or she belongs . Television situation comedies , as well as more serious shows abound with type characters . “ Dr. Quinn” in “ Dr. Quinn Medicine Woman” is a type who represents the professional women who were forerunners of the 20^th century women’s movements .

5-] Stereotype Character :  Unlike the type character , the stereotype is predictable one who is repeated without variation and who is “ tall , dark and handsome” . The stock character is a stereotype that arises from certain literary conventions , but stereotype may also be the product of political and social trends and national moves , as well . Look for a moment nation’s perception of a “ hero” . A hero is traditionally portrayed as someone who is honorable and brave . Writers of certain literary forms have for many years characterized high-ranking military and political leaders [ princes , kings , knights , generals , soldiers and presidents ] as men of honor and respect , willing to sacrifice self for country . They became heroes who were given stereotypical characteristics : tall , handsome , brave , strong and brilliant military strategists and ingenious survivalists whether in jungles or deserts . Even those who were not-so-handsome or not-so-tall would still under fire exhibit the stereotypical characteristics of a hero . Such stereotypes depend upon a perception of military and political leaders as true heroes worthy of the honor and respect they receive .

The Four Humors .

A well-balanced person has all four humors in balance . The concept of humors is based on early theories of physiology . There are [ according to old theories of cosmology ] four elements in the universe . The humors need to be in balance because if any one humor predominates , it can lead to sickness and disease and can affect personality . The following summarizes these theories .

Element	Characteristics	Humor	Personality
earth	cold , dry	black / bile	melancholic  depressed , gloomy, gluttonous , sentimental
air	hot , moist	blood	sanguine cheerful , hopeful , amorous
fire	hot , dry	yellow bile	choleric angry , vengeful , impatient ,
water	cold , moist	phlegm	phlegmatic stoic , apathetic , impassive , dull , cowardly
A person was said to be of a sanguine personality , for example if that humor was predominant .

American Division Literature [ 23 ]

23 - ] American Division Literature .

Mark Twain

Some Literary Terms .

1-] The Setting :

It refers in a literary selection to :

A-] Geographical location :  This includes area or region , the general locale , descriptions of architecture , flora and fauna , floor plans , furniture arrangements , weather conditions and so forth .

B-] Time: This may refer to a  historical period , time of day , season of the year , projection into the future , period of life or even a nonexistent time [ used extensively in the science fiction genre ] .

C-] Socioeconomic conditions : These are revealed generally in those of the characters [ their occupations , family lives , life styles and social interactions ] and the surrounding society .

2-] Mood : It can refer to an emotional state , especially as projected by the characters in the work :[ Eric is in a happy / a foul mood ] . Moods can change within the work . For example  , the tone of Swift is satiric , whose mood was angry and indignant  when he put pen to paper .

3-] Atmosphere : The setting , the tone of the author and speaker and / or the characters and the feelings of the author blend together to give the work its atmosphere – that prevailing and pervasive ambience that gives the reader the basis for expectation . Atmosphere is often described using such terms as “ mysterious ,” “ gloomy,” “ horrifying ,” “intellectual” and other expressions .

4-] Style : It is defined as the way in which the writer uses literary elements to express his / her attitude . Traditionally , literary scholars labeled style in terms at levels : High or grand style .

                            Middle or mean style .

                            Low or base [ plain ] style .

5- Character .

  How do you define character traits ?

 A person’s temperament , disposition and distinctive personal and social traits can be viewed as a function of his or her : 1-] attitudes . 2-] emotional states . 3-] response mechanisms  and 4-] intrinsic values .

All these elements combine to make an individual’s personality . Within each of these areas is a continuum of traits that range [ based on cultural and family traditions as well as on personal perceptions ] between two extremes .

1-] Attitudes : A character’s attitudes in terms of character are his or her mental positions or feelings with regard to self , other people , objects or a subject .

2-] Emotions :  The emotions of a character are his or her intense feeling . These emotions of a character may include states of excitements , states of emotional attachment or dissociation states of stability or instability , states of emotional insulation , states of emotionalism and degrees of emotional appeal .

 Here are some clues to a character’s emotional state :

1-] Reference to degrees of stimulation and exhilaration might reflect his or her state of excitement .

2-] Reference to a character’s [ negative or positive ] transference of feelings , identification with others , introjection or projection might reflect his or her state of attachment ; and references to schizophrenia , multiple personalities , split personalities , double or dual personalities , disorganization , disconnection and personality disintegration might relate to the character’s state of dissociation .

3-] References to his or her feelings of inferiority , inadequacy , moral deficiency  , emotional immaturity , lability , or pathological mendacity might reflect the character’s lack of stability – a state of instability.

4-] References to signs of escapism [ flight and withdrawal  , isolation , defense mechanism , fantasy [ dreamlike thinking ] , sublimation , rationalization and negativism might reflect a character’s state of emotional insulation .

5-] References to anxiety , hysteria , melancholia , depression , preoccupation , apathy , lethargy , stupor , euphoria ,indifference , detachment or elation might reflect his or her state of emotionalism .

6-] References to the character’s nature in terms of his or her demonstrativeness , sensationalism or sense of  the dramatic melodrama ] might influence the perception for the reader [ or self-perception ] of that character’s degree of emotional appeal .

           Of course , certain attention must be paid to psychologically based inferences and direct characterizations that reflect a character’s defects in the areas of personality [ including pathological personality types such as mal-adjustesd , inferiors , perverse , antisocial , sociopathic , psychotic , alcoholic , masochistic and so forth and social adjustment [ assaultive reactions and antisocialism , among others ] . In order to fully appreciate and to adequately identify the emotional state [ s ] of a literary character , then , sometimes requires some familiarity with symptoms of neuroses[ such as traumatic anxiety ,obsessive-compulsive , occupational , fright, phobic ] psychosomatic disorders [ such as bulimia ] , disturbances in emotions [ such as anxiety or hysteria ] , thoughts[ such as delusions or mental blocks ] and psychomotor disorders [ such as convulsions or twitching ] and mental states  [ such as amnesia , sommambulism and trances ] .

Positive emotions include fervor , ardor , cordiality , vehemence , gusto , zeal , responsiveness , demonstrativeness , insipidity , mush ,mawkishness .

Negative emotions include soulessness , callousness , frigidity , untouchability , obduracy , imperviousness , apathy , listlessness , unimpressionability .

Words connotative of hopelessness include desperation ,despondent , forlorn , irretrievable , irrevocability , incorrigible and disconsolate .

American Division Literature [ 22 ]

22- ] American Division Literature .

The Following is a Sample of Such Groupings .

1-] Pastoral Literature .

 A life apart from the urban main stream ; rural setting , country people . It includes :

1-] Pastoral poems :  Poems about shepherds and rural life [ many written between 1550 and 1750 ] .

2-] Pastoral elegies :  Poems using pastoral imagery to mourn a death .

3-] Pastoral drama :  [ It is also called pastoral plays ] plays that use shepherds and the conventions of pastoral poems .

4-] Pastoral romance :  Shepherds and pastoral conventions in a long prose narrative [ for example “ Rosalynde” by Thomas Lodge ] .

2-] Literature of The Absurd .

Poems , prose and plays that emphasize an existential sense of isolation , using such devices as black humor [ morbid and grotesque humor ] to show the writer’s view of the absurdity of life .

                                           3-] Escape Literature .

Poems , prose and plays with the main purpose to allow the reader to escape real life .

4-] Genteel Tradition .

American poems and plays that stress conventional correctness .

5-] History Literature .

Poems , prose and plays based on history [ prose forms can include historical fiction and historical novels ] .

6-Local Color Writing .

Predominantly American poems , prose and drama based on regionalisms such as dialect , dress and geographical setting .

7-] Folklore .

Folklore was not used as a literary term until the 19^th century , and it refers to many different genres that include a people’s traditions . These traditions of course are filled with customs , beliefs and rituals . As a result , they have given rise to innumerable formula plots , conventions motifs and literary traditions .

Folklore includes [ to name a few ] : popular ballads , cowboy songs , stories , riddles . nursery rhymes and legends .

American Division Literature [ 21 ]

21- ] American Division Literature .

Drama .

Chronicle Play .

Other forms of drama can be classified as either tragedy or comedy . One example is the chronicle play . Based on the 16^th century chronicles [ historical records ] , these Elizabethan dramas were characterized by enactments of battles , funerals and other historical events . Some incorporate the elements of the romantic comedy ; others are clearly tragedies . Yet a third group of chronicle plays called the history play is not comic nor tragic . Perhaps the most famous examples of chronicle plays are based on Chronicles of England , Scotland and Ireland by Raphael Holinshed , first published in 1578 . These chronicles became a major historical source for 13 of Shakespeare’s plays . Also based in part on Holinshed’s Chronicles are Shakespeare’s “King Lear ,” “ Cymbeline” and “Macbeth”.

Restoration Heroic Drama .

Its form can be tragedy or tragicomedy . These were with settings in exotic places , such as Morocco , feature a hero torn between love and duty . The dialogue is often in heroic couplets and overflowing with hyperbole .

Heroic dramas can include a sinister , evil male antagonist [ a villain ] who may be the father of the heroine and an equally evil female antagonist [ a villainess ] who tries to win the protagonist’s affections .

The Melodrama .

A form that is most often a comedy , and it can also be an element in a tragedy. The melodrama means “ a play with music” and was used in a period of English history when in the 19^th century plays were allowed to be performed only in Patent Theaters “ a monopoly” due to the Licensing Act , but musicals could be performed anywhere . By adding music and song , these dramas could be legally performed .

Pantomime .

It is drama acted out without words . These mixtures of drama and dance were popular in England in the 1700s , but were especially enjoyed in Elizabethan drama as single episodes used for dramatic effect in spoken drama . This use is called the dumb show . The pantomime as a form has survived through silent films and such comedic actors as Charlie Chaplin and Red Skelton .

 As you study form in literature , you will doubtless encounter many trends , movements , themes and conventions that group certain works from prose , poetry and drama together .