63-) English Literature

63-) English Literature 

Chidiock Tichborne

Chidiock Tichborne (after 24 August 1562 – 20 September 1586), erroneously referred to as Charles, was an English conspirator and poet.Chidiock Tichborne was born in Southampton, England, to Roman Catholic parents. Though Catholicism was tolerated in England during Tichborne’s early years, when Queen Elizabeth I was excommunicated by the pope in 1570, she reinstated a series of anti-Catholic measures in retaliation. In 1583, Tichborne was interrogated about relics he had gathered while traveling abroad; three years later, he joined the Babington conspirators who were plotting to kill the queen. He was apprehended and held in the Tower of London, where he composed a letter to his wife with the stanzas—known as “Tichborne’s Elegy”—concerning his impending death. Tichborne and a number of his coconspirators were disemboweled before they were hanged, a practice Queen Elizabeth prohibited in future executions when she learned of

it.

Life

Tichborne was born in Southampton sometime after 24 August 1562 to Roman Catholic parents, Peter Tichborne and his wife Elizabeth (née Middleton). His birth date has been given as circa 1558 in many sources, though unverified, and thus his age given as 28 at his execution. It is unlikely that he was born before his parents' marriage, so he could have been no more than 23 years old when he died.

Chidiock Tichborne descended from Sir Roger de Tichborne, who owned land at Tichborne, near Winchester, in the twelfth century. Chidiock's second cousin and contemporary was Sir Benjamin Tichborne who lived at Tichborne Park and was created a Baronet by King James I in 1621. In Chidiock's reported oration from the scaffold before his execution he allegedly stated: "I am descended from a house, from two hundred years before the Conquest, never stained till this my misfortune".

Chidiock's father Peter appears to have been the youngest son of Henry Tichborne (born circa 1474) and Anne Mervin (or Marvin) but the records are unclear. Peter was clerk of the Crowne at the trial of Sir Nicholas Throckmorton in 1554 and was an ardent Catholic supporter. Being the youngest son of a youngest son he was of little means and required to make his own way. He secured an education and the patronage of his distant kinsman, Lord Chidiock Paulet (1521–1574, son of the 1st Marquess of Winchester), after whom he named his son. In later life he spent many years imprisoned unable to pay recusancy fines. Chidiock's mother was Elizabeth Middleton, daughter of William Middleton (grandson of Sir Thomas Middleton of Belso) and Elizabeth Potter (daughter of John Potter of Westram). William had been servant to John Islip, Abbot of Westminster, and a banner bearer at Islip's funeral 1532, and later bought lands in Kent.

The name "Chidiock", pronounced ‘chidik’, as derived from his father's patron, Chidiock Paulet, originates from a Paulet ancestor, Sir John de Chideock, who owned land at Chideock, a village in Dorset. Chidiock Tichborne was never called Charles – this is an error that has grown from a misprint in the AQA GCSE English Literature syllabus which has included the Elegy in its early poetry section for several years. Unfortunately, this error persists in much of the educational literature supporting the syllabus.

At least two of Chidiock's sisters are recorded by name: Dorothy, first wife of Thomas Muttelbury of Jurdens, Somerset; and Mary, second wife of Sir William Kirkham of Blagdon in the parish of Paignton in Devon. At his execution Chidiock mentions his wife Agnes, one child, and his six sisters. In his letter to his wife, written the night before his execution he mentions his sisters – and also 'my little sister Babb'. Another sister is implied in a secret intelligence note to Francis Walsingham, dated 18 September 1586, in which the writer has had conference with "Jennings of Portsmouth" who reports that Mr Bruyn of Dorset and Mr Kyrkham of Devon are persons to be suspect as they had married Tychbourn's sisters.

History

After the succession of Elizabeth I to the throne following the death of Mary I, Chidiock was allowed to practise Catholicism for part of his early life. However, in 1570 the Queen was excommunicated by the Pope for her own Protestantism and support of Protestant causes, most notably the Dutch Rebellion against Spain; in retaliation she ended her relative toleration of the Catholic Church. Catholicism was made illegal, and Roman Catholics were once more banned by law from practising their religion and Roman Catholic priests risked death for performing their functions.

In 1583, Tichborne and his father, Peter, were arrested and questioned concerning the use of "popish relics", religious objects Tichborne had brought back from a visit he had made abroad without informing the authorities of an intention to travel.[2] Though released without charge, records suggest that this was not the last time they were to be questioned by the authorities over their religion. In June 1586 accusations of "popish practices" were laid against his family.

In June 1586, Tichborne agreed to take part in the Babington Plot to murder Queen Elizabeth and replace her with the Catholic Mary, Queen of Scots, who was next in line to the throne. The plot was foiled by Sir Francis Walsingham, Elizabeth's spymaster, using double agents, most notably Robert Poley who was later witness to the murder of Christopher Marlowe, and though most of the conspirators fled, Tichborne had an injured leg and was forced to remain in London. On 14 August he was arrested and he was later tried and sentenced to death in Westminster Hall.

While in custody in the Tower of London on 19 September (the eve of his execution), Tichborne wrote a letter to his wife. She is named as Agnes, even though the State Papers recording his interrogation clearly identify her as Jane Martyn of Athelhampton. But in Tudor times, Agnes was often used as a nickname or term of endearment for very devout women; and it was pronounced in a way that made it sound similar to Jane. So Agnes was most probably a private name that the young husband used for his wife.

The letter contained three stanzas of poetry that is his best known piece of work, Tichborne's Elegy, also known by its first line My Prime of Youth is but a Frost of Cares. The poem is a dark look at a life cut short and is a favourite of many scholars to this day. Two other poems are known by him, To His Friend and The Housedove.

On 20 September 1586, Tichborne was executed with Anthony Babington, John Ballard, and four other conspirators. They were eviscerated, hanged, drawn and quartered, the mandatory punishment for treason, in St Giles Field. However, when Elizabeth was informed that these gruesome executions were arousing sympathy for the condemned, she ordered that the remaining seven conspirators were to be hanged until 'quite dead' before being eviscerated.

Tichborne's poetry

Elegy and others

Elegy

My prime of youth is but a frost of cares,

My feast of joy is but a dish of pain,

My crop of corn is but a field of tares,

And all my good is but vain hope of gain;

The day is past, and yet I saw no sun,

And now I live, and now my life is done.

My tale was heard and yet it was not told,

My fruit is fallen, and yet my leaves are green,

My youth is spent and yet I am not old,

I saw the world and yet I was not seen;

My thread is cut and yet it is not spun,

And now I live, and now my life is done.

I sought my death and found it in my womb,

I looked for life and saw it was a shade,

I trod the earth and knew it was my tomb,

And now I die, and now I was but made;

My glass is full, and now my glass is run,

And now I live, and now my life is done.

This is the first printed version from Verses of Prayse and Joye (1586). The original text differs slightly: along with other minor differences, the first line of the second verse reads "The spring is past, and yet it hath not sprung," and the third line reads "My youth is gone, and yet I am but young."

The last word in the third line, "tares," refers to a harmful "weed" that resembles corn when young, and is a reference to Matt. 13:24–30.[9]

To His Friend (assumed to be Anthony Babington)

Good sorrow cease, false hope be gone, misfortune once farewell;

Come, solemn muse, the sad discourse of our adventures tell.

A friend I had whose special part made mine affection his;

We ruled tides and streams ourselves, no want was in our bliss.

Six years we sailed, sea-room enough, by many happy lands,

Till at the length, a stream us took and cast us on the sands.

There lodged we were in a gulf of woe, despairing what to do,

Till at the length, from shore unknown, a Pilot to us drew,

Whose help did sound our grounded ship from out Caribda's mouth,

But unadvised, on Scylla drives; the wind which from the South

Did blustering blow the fatal blast of our unhappy fall,

Where driving, leaves my friend and I to fortune ever thrall;

Where we be worse beset with sands and rocks on every side,

Where we be quite bereft of aid, of men, of winds, of tide.

Where vain it is to hail for help so far from any shore,

So far from Pilot's course; despair shall we, therefore?

No! God from out his heap of helps on us will some bestow,

And send such mighty surge of seas, or else such blasts to blow

As shall remove our grounded ship far from this dangerous place,

And we shall joy each others' chance through God's almighty grace,

And keep ourselves on land secure, our sail on safer seas.

Sweet friend, till then content thy self, and pray for our release.

The Housedove

A silly housedove happed to fall

amongst a flock of crows,

Which fed and filled her harmless craw

amongst her fatal foes.

The crafty fowler drew his net –

all his that he could catch –

The crows lament their hellish chance,

the dove repents her match.

But too, too late! it was her chance

the fowler did her spy,

And so did take her for a crow –

which thing caused her to die.

The only known manuscript versions of "To His Friend" and The Housedove" are from Edinburgh Library MS Laing, II, 69/24. However, twenty-eight different manuscript versions of the "Elegy" (or "Lament") are known and there are many variations of the text.

Comment

Tichborne's authorship of the Elegy has been disputed, with attributions to others including Sir Walter Raleigh. However it was printed soon after the Babington plot in a volume called Verses of Praise and Joy in 1586, published by John Wolfe of London to celebrate the Queen's survival and to attack the plotters. In the same volume an answer poem entitled "Hendecasyllabon T. K. in Cygneam Cantionem Chideochi Tychborne" ("T. K.'s Hendecasyllabon Against Chidiock Tichborne's Swan Song") is most likely by the poet and dramatist Thomas Kyd, author of The Spanish Tragedy.

Hendecasyllabon T. K. in Cygneam Cantionem Chideochi Tychborne

Thy prime of youth is frozen with thy faults,

Thy feast of joy is finisht with thy fall;

Thy crop of corn is tares availing naughts,

Thy good God knows thy hope, thy hap and all.

Short were thy days, and shadowed was thy sun,

T'obscure thy light unluckily begun.

Time trieth truth, and truth hath treason tripped;

Thy faith bare fruit as thou hadst faithless been:

Thy ill spent youth thine after years hath nipt;

And God that saw thee hath preserved our Queen.

Her thread still holds, thine perished though unspun,

And she shall live when traitors lives are done.

Thou soughtst thy death, and found it in desert,

Thou look'dst for life, yet lewdly forc'd it fade:

Thou trodst the earth, and now on earth thou art,

As men may wish thou never hadst been made.

Thy glory, and thy glass are timeless run;

And this, O Tychborne, hath thy treason done.

Critical appreciation

Elegy

Tichborne's "Elegy" (his rhyming, final soliloquy poem), uses two favourite Renaissance figures of speech – antithesis and paradox – to crystallise the tragedy of the poet's situation. Antithesis means setting opposites against each other: prime of youth / frost of cares (from the first line). This is typical of Renaissance poetry, as for example in Wyatt's "I find no peace, and all my war is done", with the lover freezing/burning. It also appears in the poem by Elizabeth I "I grieve and dare not show my discontent", e.g., "I am and not, I freeze and yet am burned." A paradox is a statement which seems self-contradictory, yet is true, e.g., "My tale is heard, and yet it was not told", or "My glass is full, and now my glass is run." Often a Renaissance poem will begin with antithesis to establish circumstances and reveal its themes through paradox.

The "Elegy" is remarkable for being written almost entirely in monosyllables: Every word in the poem is of one syllable, with ten words in each line, monostich style), with the possible exception of the word "fallen". However, in early editions it was written as "fall'n" which is monosyllabic.

The "Elegy" has inspired many "homages" and "answers" including those by Jonathon Robin at allpoetry.com ; a rap version by David A More at www.marlovian.com ; After Reading Tichborne's Elegy by Dick Allen (2003) and Tichborne's Lexicon by Nick Montfort.

The "Elegy" has also been set to music many times from the Elizabethan era to the present day by, among others, Michael East, Richard Alison (fl1580-1610, in An Hour's Recreation in musicke, 1606), John Mundy (1592) and Charles-François Gounod (1873) and more recently Norman Dello Joio (1949) and Jim Clark (see Tichborne's Elegy Poem Animation) and Taylor Momsen.

The Housedove

"The Housedove" exploits a popular image from the period: Tichborne sees himself as an innocent dove caught among his fellow conspirators, (see Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet 1.5.48). The "crafty fowler" is probably Sir Francis Walsingham, the spymaster who manipulated the Babington plot.

Chidiock Tichborne Poems

My prime of youth is but a frost of cares

Chidiock Tichborne Biography

The tragic figure of Chidiock Tichborne is famous either for his martyrdom as a devout Catholic or for being part of a terrorist plot to kill the reigning monarch, Queen Elizabeth I. He had lived a short life in the 16th century practicing, along with his parents, Catholicism at a time when to do so was becoming increasingly dangerous. With the Queen having been excommunicated due to her support of the Dutch conflicts with Spain her tolerance of papists had come to an end. The fact that she saw the Catholic Mary, Queen of Scots as a direct threat to her own throne was a major factor. Tichborne made the fatal error of getting mixed up in the so-called Babington Plot. This was a group of men hell bent on killing a Queen, and it was only a matter of time before they were discovered, and they would then all suffer the grisly consequences.

There is some conjecture as to Tichborne’s year of birth but most historians have recorded it as some time during 1562. His place of birth was Southampton, Hampshire and his parents had some strains of nobility in their family histories, an example being Sir Roger de Tichborne who was a 12th century land owner not far from Southampton, in Winchester. The family line went right back to the Norman Conquests and Chidiock Tichborne was reported as making the following statement while on the scaffold:

poem

Nothing is written about his upbringing as, not surprisingly, the story focuses on the activities that brought a premature end to his life. He was known to be a poet, although only three poems appear to have survived. His most famous one was written on the night before his execution and is sometimes called Tichborne’s Elegy or My Prime of Youth is but a Frost of Cares. The other two are called To His Friend and The Housedove.

The persecution of Catholics in England began after the Queen’s excommunication in 1570 and priests who continued to preach their faith did so under pain of death. The Tichborne family came to the notice of the authorities in 1583 for the use of “popish relics” and for having made an unauthorised overseas trip.   At this time there were no charges but some were made against them three years later, in 1586. The Queen’s so-called “Spy Master”, Sir Francis Walsingham, had uncovered a plot to kill the sovereign and then install the Catholic Mary, Queen of Scots. A lot of the Babington plot conspirators got away but some, including Tichborne, were caught and tried at Westminster Hall in August. The death sentence for such treason was mandatory and would lead to be a particularly savage end for all of them.

On the 19th September Tichborne was allowed to write a letter to his wife, Agnes and he included a poem of three stanzas which has become his most famous piece of work. Sometimes called his Elegy, here is the poem. It’s a mournful, resigned statement that says he knows that his life is over, but what a pity it had to be so short. He seems to be acknowledging, though, that he has brought about his own downfall because of his unwavering faith:

A Short Analysis of Chidiock Tichborne’s ‘Elegy’

A summary of a famous Elizabethan poem

Chidiock Tichborne was only 24 years old when he was executed in the most horrifically brutal way, by being hanged, drawn, and quartered, for his role in the Catholic Babington Plot to assassinate Queen Elizabeth I in 1586. Tichborne’s Elegy, which he composed on 19 September 1586 on the eve of his execution and sent to his wife Agnes, remains his most famous poem, and an oft-anthologised example of sixteenth-century English verse. Commonly known as ‘Tichborne’s Elegy’, or by its first line ‘My Prime of Youth is but a Frost of Cares’, the poem is worthy of analysis because of the skill it demonstrates but also, of course, because of the circumstances under which it was composed.

Tichborne’s Elegy

My prime of youth is but a frost of cares,

My feast of joy is but a dish of pain,

My crop of corn is but a field of tares,

And all my good is but vain hope of gain;

The day is past, and yet I saw no sun,

And now I live, and now my life is done.

My tale was heard and yet it was not told,

My fruit is fallen, and yet my leaves are green,

My youth is spent and yet I am not old,

I saw the world and yet I was not seen;

My thread is cut and yet it is not spun,

And now I live, and now my life is done.

I sought my death and found it in my womb,

I looked for life and saw it was a shade,

I trod the earth and knew it was my tomb,

And now I die, and now I was but made;

My glass is full, and now my glass is run,

And now I live, and now my life is done.

Before we get to a summary and analysis of Tichborne’s Elegy, a quick note on his name. The unusual name Chidiock was taken from his father’s patron, Chidiock Paulet, and has its origins in the name of a village in Dorset. Chidiock Tichborne is sometimes erroneously called Charles, a mistake that apparently originated in a misprint in the AQA GCSE English Literature syllabus in the UK.

The version we reproduced above is somewhat different from the original version Tichborne sent to his wife, where the first and third lines of that middle stanza were different. Below we’ve included the original version (with Tichborne’s own spelling) as it is included in the excellent anthology The Oxford Book of English Verse, edited by Christopher Ricks, right down to the inconsistencies (‘live’ becomes ‘lyve’ in the middle stanza):

My prime of youth is but a froste of cares,

My feaste of joy, is but a dishe of payne,

My cropp of corne, is but a field of tares:

And all my good is but vaine hope of gaine:

The daye is gone, and yet I sawe no sonn:

And nowe I live, and nowe my life is donn.

The springe is past, and yet it hath not sprong

The frute is deade, and yet the leaves are greene

My youth is gone, and yet I am but yonge

I sawe the woorld, and yet I was not seene

My threed is cutt, and yet it was not sponn

And nowe I lyve, and nowe my life is donn.

I saught my death, and founde it in my wombe

I lookte for life, and sawe it was a shade.

I trode the earth and knewe it was my Tombe

And nowe I die, and nowe I am but made

The glasse is full, and nowe the glass is run

And nowe I live, and nowe my life is donn.

Reading the poem in its sixteenth-century spelling adds extra poignancy and power to its meaning.

Although the meaning of Tichborne’s ‘Elegy’ might be reasonably clear, a brief paraphrase of the poem might help to clarify a few things. His best years, he tells us, are not what they should be. The crop of corn he has (metaphorically) grown has turned out to be actually a nasty weed that merely resembles corn (but is inedible). (This is a biblical allusion to Matthew 13:25-30, which mentions the ‘tares’ of the bearded darnel, Lolium temulentum, a species of rye-grass, the seeds of which are highly poisonous. The weed looks remarkably like wheat until the ear appears.) All of the goodness in his life is a sham, because he foolishly and futilely hopes to achieve things which he never will. And although he never reached the lofty heights he hoped to, his life is already over, like an overcast day when the sun never comes out.

Spring is over, yet he missed the growth and warmth of that season; all the fruit that grew in the spring is already dead, even though the leaves remain green – in other words, Tichborne is still young, fit and healthy, but all of the things he hoped to achieve are already dead and over with. Paradoxically, although he is still young (just 24 when he wrote the Elegy, remember), his youth is now over – because his life is to end tomorrow. Although he went out there and saw the world, his potential was never realised. With a nod to the fates, Tichborne states that the ‘thread’ of his life has been cut, before the Fates of classical myth even had a chance to ‘spin’ a course for him (i.e. before he had a chance to make a real mark on the world).

In the final stanza, Tichborne reflects that, to borrow from T. S. Eliot’s ‘East Coker’, ‘In my beginning is my end.’ His death is to be found in his origin or conception, in the ‘wombe’ – in other words, no sooner had he been conceived and born than he is to be recalled by death. His life is but a shadow of what it could have been. The earth he has walked upon was his ‘tombe’ all this time: he was a dead man walking. He’s dying when he’s barely been made, or formed, into a man. One moment the hourglass is full of grains of sand, and the next moment they have all run out, and his time is up. The poem ends the way each stanza has ended: ‘And now I live, and now my life is done.’ There is something almost resigned or inevitable about those ‘And nows’: ‘and now this happens, and now tomorrow, this other thing is going to happen.’ C’est la vie – et la mort.

The poem is a masterly balance of contrasts, presenting, in each successive line, two distinct states: his field of corn is actually a field of weeds; the leaves are green and yet the fruit has already fallen from the tree, dead. The repetition of ‘and yet’ reinforces the sense of injustice and waste that Tichborne feels. After all, to his mind he is a brave representative of the true Christian faith being executed by a corrupt Protestant government. Yet Tichborne also probably believed he was a Catholic martyr who would be rewarded in heaven, which perhaps explains the more stoic tone glimpsed in that repeated refrain.

Chidiock Tichborne’s authorship of the ‘Elegy’ has been disputed, with some claiming it was another Tower of London jailbird, Sir Walter Raleigh, who wrote it. But it seems likely that Tichborne – who also wrote some other charming poems, such as ‘The Housedove’ – did indeed pen the poem shortly before his brutal execution. Interestingly, the pioneering playwright Thomas Kyd (author of the pioneering revenge play The Spanish Tragedy) would pen a response to Tichborne’s Elegy, included below. Like Tichborne, Kyd would later fall foul of the authorities (for his associations with Christopher Marlowe), and would be tortured in the Tower; although he was later released, he would die of his injuries less than a year later.

Thy prime of youth is frozen with thy faults,

Thy feast of joy is finisht with thy fall;

Thy crop of corn is tares availing naughts,

Thy good God knows thy hope, thy hap and all.

Short were thy days, and shadowed was thy sun,

T’obscure thy light unluckily begun.

Time trieth truth, and truth hath treason tripped;

Thy faith bare fruit as thou hadst faithless been:

Thy ill spent youth thine after years hath nipt;

And God that saw thee hath preserved our Queen.

Her thread still holds, thine perished though unspun,

And she shall live when traitors lives are done.

Thou soughtst thy death, and found it in desert,

Thou look’dst for life, yet lewdly forc’d it fade:

Thou trodst the earth, and now on earth thou art,

As men may wish thou never hadst been made.

Thy glory, and thy glass are timeless run;

And this, O Tychborne, hath thy treason done.

 

62-) English Literature

62-) English Literature 

 George Gascoigne

George Gascoigne, the son of landowner and farmer John Gascoigne, was born in c. 1539,Cardington, Bedfordshire, England —died Oct. 7, 1577, Barnack, near Stamford, Lincolnshire) , English poet, soldier and unsuccessful courtier and a major literary innovator.

He attended Trinity College, Cambridge, and replaced his father as an almoner at Elizabeth I’s coronation. However, as a farmer George Gascoigne was unsuccessful: he was imprisoned for debt and yet served in Parliament for two years, beginning in 1557. In 1571 Gascoigne joined the army, serving under the Prince of Orange in the Netherlands and at one point facing accusations of treason.

He is considered the most important poet of the early Elizabethan era, following Sir Thomas Wyatt and Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey and leading to the emergence of Philip Sidney. He was the first poet to deify Queen Elizabeth I, in effect establishing her cult as a virgin goddess married to her kingdom and subjects. His most noted works include A Discourse of the Adventures of Master FJ (1573), an account of courtly intrigue and one of the earliest English prose fictions; The Supposes, (performed in 1566, printed in 1573), an early translation of Ariosto and the first comedy written in English prose, which was used by Shakespeare as a source for The Taming of the Shrew; the frequently anthologised short poem "Gascoignes wodmanship" (1573) and "Certayne Notes of Instruction concerning the making of verse or ryme in English" (1575), the first essay on English versification.

Early life

The eldest son of Sir John Gascoigne of Cardington, Bedfordshire, Gascoigne was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and on leaving the university is supposed to have joined the Middle Temple. He became a member of Gray's Inn in 1555. He has been identified without much show of evidence with a lawyer named Gastone who was in prison in 1548 under very discreditable circumstances. There is no doubt that his escapades were notorious, and that he was imprisoned for debt. George Whetstone says that Sir John Gascoigne disinherited his son on account of his follies, but by his own account he was obliged to sell his patrimony to pay the debts contracted at court. He was MP for Bedford in 1557–1558 and 1558–1559, but when he presented himself in 1572 for election at Midhurst he was refused on the charges of being "a defamed person and noted for manslaughter", "a common Rymer and a deviser of slaunderous Pasquelles", "a notorious rufilanne", and a constantly indebted atheist.

Gascoigne attended the University of Cambridge, studied law at Gray’s Inn in 1555, and thereafter pursued careers as a politician, country gentleman, courtier, soldier of fortune, and man of letters, all with moderate distinction. He was a member of Parliament (1557–59). Because of his extravagance and debts, he gained a reputation for disorderly living. He served with English troops in the Low Countries, ending his military career as a repatriated prisoner of war. In 1575 he helped to arrange the celebrated entertainments provided for Queen Elizabeth I at Kenilworth and Woodstock and in 1576 went to Holland as an agent in the royal service. Among his friends were many leading poets, notably George Whetstone, George Turberville, and Edmund Spenser.

His poems, with the exception of some commendatory verses, were not published before 1572, but they may have circulated in manuscript before that date. He tells us that his friends at Gray's Inn importuned him to write on Latin themes set by them, and that two of his plays were acted there. He repaired his fortunes by marrying the wealthy widow of William Breton, thus becoming stepfather to the poet, Nicholas Breton. In 1568 an inquiry into the disposition of William Breton's property with a view to the protection of the children's rights was instituted before the Lord Mayor, but the matter was probably settled in a friendly manner, for Gascoigne continued to hold the Breton Walthamstow estate, which he had from his wife, until his death.

George Gascoigne wrote poetry, plays, and prose. His first play, Supposes— a translation of I Suppositi by Ludovico Ariosto—was published in 1566. His collection of poems and a prose novella, A Hundreth Sundrie Flowres (1573), was deemed offensive by many. It was republished as The Posies of George Gascoigne Esquire (1575). Gascoigne was also the author of The Steele Glas, “A Satyre compiled by George Gascoigne Esquire,” on the senselessness of war. His The Adventures of Master F.J. (1573), a hybrid of poetry and prose considered by some to have been autobiographical, was published in two different versions. Gascoigne wrote an essay on writing, “Certayne Notes of Instruction on Making of Verse” (1575). His Spoyle of Antwerp (1576) gave an account of a visit to Paris and Antwerp for business.

 Shakespeare may have used Supposes as a source for part of The Taming of the Shrew. Gascoigne died of an illness near Stamford.

Plays at Gray's Inn

Gascoigne translated two plays performed in 1566 at Gray's Inn, the most aristocratic of the Renaissance London Inns of Court: the prose comedy Supposes based on Ariosto's Suppositi, and Jocasta, a tragedy in blank verse which is said to have derived from Euripides's Phoenissae, but appears more directly as a translation from the Italian of Lodovico Dolce's Giocasta.[6]

A Hundreth Sundry Flowres (1573) and Posies of Gascoigne (1575)

Gascoigne's best known and controversial work was originally published in 1573 under the title A Hundreth Sundry Flowres bound up in one small Poesie. Gathered partely (by translation) in the fyne outlandish Gardins of Euripides, Ovid, Petrarch, Ariosto and others; and partly by Invention out of our owne fruitefull Orchardes in Englande, Yelding Sundrie Savours of tragical, comical and moral discourse, bothe pleasaunt and profitable, to the well-smelling noses of learned readers, by London printer Richarde Smith. The book purports to be an anthology of courtly poets, gathered and edited by Gascoigne and two other editors known only by the initials "H.W." and "G.T." The book's content is throughout suggestive of courtly scandal, and the aura of scandal is skilfully elaborated through the effective use of initials and posies—Latin or English tags supposed to denote particular authors—in place of the real names of actual or alleged authors.

Judged to be offensive, the book was "seized by Her Majesty's High Commissioners." Gascoigne republished the book with certain additions and deletions two years later under the alternative title, The Posies of George Gascoigne, Esquire. The new edition contains three new dedicatory epistles, signed by Gascoigne, which apologise for the offence that the original edition had caused. This effort failed, however, as the book was also ruled offensive and likewise seized.

At war in the Netherlands

When Gascoigne sailed as a soldier of fortune to the Low Countries in 1572, his ship was driven by stress of weather to Brielle, which luckily for him had just fallen into the hands of the Dutch. He obtained a captain's commission, and took an active part in the campaigns of the next two years including the Middelburg siege, during which he acquired a profound dislike of the Dutch, and a great admiration for William of Orange, who had personally intervened on his behalf in a quarrel with his colonel, and secured him against the suspicion caused by his clandestine visits to a lady at the Hague.

Taken prisoner after the evacuation of Valkenburg by English troops during the Siege of Leiden, he was sent to England in the autumn of 1574. He dedicated to Lord Grey de Wilton the story of his adventures, The Fruites of Warres (printed in the edition of 1575) and Gascoigne's Voyage into Hollande. In 1575 he had a share in devising the masques, published in the next year as The Princely Pleasures at the Courte at Kenelworth, which celebrated the queen's visit to the Earl of Leicester. At Woodstock in 1575 he delivered a prose speech before Elizabeth, and was present at a reading of the Pleasant Tale of Hemetes the Hermit, a brief romance, probably written by the queen's host, Sir Henry Lee. At the queen's annual gift exchange with members of her court the following New Year's, Gascoigne gave her a manuscript of Hemetes which he had translated into Latin, Italian, and French. Its frontispiece shows the Queen rewarding the kneeling poet with an accolade and a purse; its motto, "Tam Marti, quam Mercurio", indicates that he will serve her as a soldier, as a scholar-poet, or as both. He also drew three emblems, with accompanying text in the three other languages. He also translated Jacques du Fouilloux's La Venerie (1561) into English as The Noble Arte of Venerie or Hunting (1575) which was printed together with George Turberville's The Book of Falconrie or Hawking and is thus sometimes misattributed to Turberville though in fact it was a work by Gascoigne.

Later writings and influences

Most of his works were published during the last years of his life after his return from the wars. He died in Stamford in Lincolnshire on 7 October 1577 and was buried on 13 October in the graveyard of St Mary's Church, Stamford.

Gascoigne's theory of metrical composition is explained in a short critical treatise, "Certayne Notes of Instruction concerning the making of verse or ryme in English, written at the request of Master Edouardo Donati," prefixed to his Posies (1575). He acknowledged Chaucer as his master, and differed from the earlier poets of the school of Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey and Thomas Wyatt chiefly in the greater smoothness and sweetness of his verse.

Gascoigne was a skilled literary craftsman, memorable for versatility and vividness of expression and for his treatment of events based on his own experience. His chief importance, however, is as a pioneer of the English Renaissance who had a remarkable aptitude for domesticating foreign literary genres. He foreshadowed the English sonnet sequences with groups of linked sonnets in his first published work, A Hundreth sundrie Flowres (1573), a collection of verse and prose. In The Posies of George Gascoigne (1575), an authorized revision of the earlier work, which had been published anonymously, he included also “Certayne notes of Instruction,” the first treatise on prosody in English. In The Steele Glas (1576), one of the earliest formal satires in English, he wrote the first original nondramatic English blank verse. In two amatory poems, the autobiographical “Dan Bartholomew of Bathe” (published in A Hundreth sundrie Flowres) and The Complainte of Phylomene (1576), Gascoigne developed Ovidian verse narrative, the form used by William Shakespeare in Venus and Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece.

“The Adventures of Master F.J.,” published in A Hundreth sundrie Flowres, was the first original prose narrative of the English Renaissance. Another prose work, The Spoyle of Antwerpe (1576), is an early example of war journalism, characterized by objective and graphic reporting.

Gascoigne’s Jocasta (performed in 1566) constituted the first Greek tragedy to be presented on the English stage. Translated into blank verse, with the collaboration of Francis Kinwelmersh, from Lodovico Dolce’s Giocasta, the work derives ultimately from Euripides’ Phoenissae. In comedy, Gascoigne’s Supposes (1566?), a prose translation and adaptation of Ludovico Ariosto’s I Suppositi, was the first prose comedy to be translated from Italian into English. A dramatically effective work, it provided the subplot for Shakespeare’s The Taming of the Shrew. A third play, The Glasse of Government (1575), is a didactic drama on the Prodigal Son theme. It rounds out the picture of Gascoigne as a typical literary man of the early Renaissance.

61-) English Literature

61-) English Literature 

Mary Sidney  

Mary Herbert, Countess of Pembroke (born Oct. 27, 1561, near Bewdley, Worcestershire, Eng.—died Sept. 25, 1621, London) , patron of the arts and scholarship, poet, and translator. She was the sister of Sir Philip Sidney, who dedicated to her his Arcadia. After his death she published it and completed his verse translation of the Psalms . She  was among the first Englishwomen to gain notice for her poetry and her literary patronage. By the age of 39, she was listed with her brother Philip Sidney and with Edmund Spenser and William Shakespeare among the notable authors of the day in John Bodenham's verse miscellany Belvidere. Her play Antonius is widely seen as reviving interest in soliloquy based on classical models and as a likely source of Samuel Daniel's closet drama Cleopatra (1594) and of Shakespeare's Antony and Cleopatra (1607). She was also known for translating Petrarch's "Triumph of Death", for the poetry anthology Triumphs, and above all for a lyrical, metrical translation of the Psalms.

Biography

Early life

Mary Sidney was born on 27 October 1561 at Tickenhill Palace in the parish of Bewdley, Worcestershire, on the Welsh border. She was one of the seven children – three sons and four daughters – of Sir Henry Sidney and wife Mary Dudley. Their eldest son was Sir Philip Sidney (1554–1586), and their second son Robert Sidney (1563–1626), who later became Earl of Leicester. Her father was serving as lord Governor of the marches of Wales. He had been a companion of King Edward, who died in his arms. Her mother, a well-educated woman who was a close friend of Queen Elizabeth, was the daughter of the Earl of Northumberland, who was virtual ruler of England in King Edward's final years, and the sister of Elizabeth's favorite, Robert Dudley. As a child, she spent much time at court where her mother was a gentlewoman of the Privy Chamber and a close confidante of Queen Elizabeth I. Like her brother Philip, she received a humanist education which included music, needlework, and Latin, French and Italian. After the death of Sidney's youngest sister, Ambrosia, in 1575, the Queen requested that Mary return to court to join the royal entourage.

In 1575 Queen Elizabeth I invited Mary to court, promising “a speciall care” of her. Two years later Mary wed Henry Herbert, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, and lived mainly at Wilton House, near Salisbury, Wiltshire. Their sons, William and Philip, were the “incomparable pair of brethren” to whom William Shakespeare’s First Folio (1623) was dedicated.

Lady Sidney was badly scarred by smallpox after nursing the queen, and thereafter rarely appeared at court.

While Mary's brothers, Philip, Robert, and Thomas, were preparing to enter the university, she and her younger sister, Ambrosia, received an outstanding education for women of their time, including training in Latin, French, and Italian language and literature, as well as more typically feminine subjects such as needlework, lute playing, and singing. After Ambrosia died in 1575, Queen Elizabeth invited the Sidneys to send Mary to court, away from the "unpleasant" air of Wales.

When Mary was fifteen she became the third wife of Henry Herbert, Earl of Pembroke, one of the richest men in England and an important ally of her father and of her uncle, the earl of Leicester. Although a 1578 letter to Leicester shows her struggling to please these two powerful earls, she quickly grew into her role as countess of Pembroke. As mistress of the primary Pembroke estate at Wilton, their London home Baynards Castle, and several smaller estates, she encouraged literary and scientific endeavors among her friends and household. Between 1580 and 1584 she bore four children: Katherine, who died in childhood; Anne, who died in her early twenties; William, who became the third earl of Pembroke; and Philip, whom King James created Earl of Montgomery and who eventually succeeded his brother as fourth earl of Pembroke. Her sons were the "Incomparable Pair of Brethren" to whom Shakespeare's First Folio was dedicated.

Marriage and children

In 1577, Mary Sidney married Henry Herbert, 2nd Earl of Pembroke (1538–1601), a close ally of the family. The marriage was arranged by her father in concert with her uncle, Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester. After her marriage, Mary became responsible with her husband for the management of a number of estates which he owned including Ramsbury, Ivychurch,[5] Wilton House, and Baynard's Castle in London, where it is known that they entertained Queen Elizabeth to dinner. She had four children by her husband:

William Herbert, 3rd Earl of Pembroke (1580–1630), was the eldest son and heir, Katherine Herbert (1581–1584)[6] died as an infant, Anne Herbert (born 1583 – after 1603) was thought also to have been a writer and a storyteller, Philip Herbert, 4th Earl of Pembroke (1584–1650), succeeded his brother in 1630. Philip and his older brother William were the "incomparable pair of brethren" to whom the First Folio of Shakespeare's collected works was dedicated in 1623.

Mary Sidney was an aunt to the poet Mary Wroth, daughter of her brother Robert.

Later life

The death of Sidney's husband in 1601 left her with less financial support than she might have expected, though views on its adequacy vary; at the time the majority of an estate was left to the eldest son.

In addition to the arts, Sidney had a range of interests. She had a chemistry laboratory at Wilton House, where she developed medicines and invisible ink. From 1609 to 1615, Mary Sidney probably spent most of her time at Crosby Hall in London.

She travelled with her doctor, Martin Lister, to Spa, Belgium in 1616. Dudley Carleton met her in the company of Helene de Melun, "Countess of Berlaymont", wife of Florent de Berlaymont the governor of Luxembourg. The two women amused themselves with pistol shooting. Sir John Throckmorton heard she went on to Amiens. There is conjecture that she married Lister, but no evidence of this.

 

She died of smallpox on 25 September 1621, aged 59, at her townhouse in Aldersgate Street in London, shortly after King James I had visited her at the newly completed Houghton House in Bedfordshire. After a grand funeral in St Paul's Cathedral, her body was buried in Salisbury Cathedral, next to that of her late husband in the Herbert family vault, under the steps leading to the choir stalls, where the mural monument still stands.

Literary career

Mary Sidney was the most important non-royal woman writer and patron in Elizabethan England. Without appearing to transgress the strictures against women's writing, she composed a sizable body of work, evading criticism by focusing on religious themes and by confining her work to the genres thought appropriate to women: translation, dedication, elegy, and encomium. Even more important to her success was her identity as the sister of Sir Philip Sidney. She began her public literary career after his death by encouraging works written in his praise, publishing his works, and completing his translation of the Psalms. Except for some business correspondence, all of her extant works were completed or published in the 1590s. Tantalizing later references indicate that she continued writing and translating until her death, but all subsequent works have been lost, probably to fire; her primary residences of Wilton and Baynards Castle burned in the seventeenth century. The extensive family correspondence mentioned by her brothers and other contemporaries has also been lost; her only surviving personal letters were written to her uncle, Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, in 1578; and to Robert Sidney's wife, Barbara Gamage, in 1591, offering the services of a nurse.

Mary Sidney began her writing career in the late 1580s, after her three surviving children were out of infancy and after she had experienced a devastating series of deaths in her family. Her three-year-old daughter Katherine died in 1584 on the same day her son Philip was born. The death of her father in May 1586 was quickly followed by her mother's death in August. Because all three of her brothers were serving with the English forces sent to help free Protestant Holland from the occupying forces of Catholic Spain, Mary was the only one who could represent the family at the funeral. In the autumn, while seriously ill herself, the countess learned that her brother Philip died on 17 October from infection of a wound received at Zutphen. All England and Holland mourned his death; several collections of elegies and his splendid funeral (delayed until February for financial reasons) helped to establish the Sidney legend. Overcome by illness and grief, fearing invasion by the Spanish Armada, Mary Sidney remained in the country for two years.

 

In November 1588, she returned to London in a splendid procession, and began to honor her brother by her activities as patron, translator, and writer. The stream of elegies for Sir Philip had dried up quickly after the death of the earl of Leicester, who had rewarded those who honored his nephew; Mary Sidney stepped into that role, encouraging a second wave of elegies, including works by Thomas Moffet, Abraham Fraunce, and Edmund Spenser. Her first known literary work, "The Doleful Lay of Clorinda," was published 1595 with Spenser's "Astrophel" in a collection of elegies. Although some critics have attributed the poem to Spenser, evidence of her authorship includes her 1594 letter to Philip Sidney's friend Sir Edward Wotton, asking for his copy of a poem of mourning that she had written long ago and now needed; Spenser's parallel treatment of Lodowick Bryskett as "Thestylis" and the countess as "Clorinda"; the parallel separation of "Clorinda" from "Astrophel" and from "The Mourning Muse of Thestylis" by the use of borders and introductory stanzas in the first publication of the "Lay"; Spenser's own references to the countess in "Astrophel" and in The Ruines of Time (1591); and stylistic similarities to the countess' other works.

The most probable scenario is that the countess worked with Spenser, assembling poems printed earlier in The Phoenix Nest (1593) and revising her poem written shortly after Philip's death. Spenser then wrote "Astrophel" for the volume, as well as stanzas introducing the other elegies. In "The Doleful Lay of Clorinda" Sidney uses pastoral language to mourn the death of one who was the "Joy of the world, and shepherd's pride." A more personal note is sounded in her lament for the "merry maker" of riddles and poems. She follows convention in the final apotheosis, showing her brother living in heaven "in everlasting bliss" while those below mourn his absence.

Sidney next turned to translation via form of writing, like elegies for male relatives, deemed suitably feminine. Her boldness lay in publishing under her own name, a most unusual action for an aristocratic woman. Like her brother Philip, the countess was deeply influenced by Continental writers and sought to bring European literary forms and themes to England. Two translations from French, A Discourse of Life and Death (dated "The 13 of May 1590. At Wilton") and Antonius (dated "At Ramsburie. 26. of November 1590"), were published together in 1592.

Sidney's translation of Robert Garnier's Marc Antoine (1578), among the first English dramas in blank verse, helped introduce the Continental vogue for using historical drama to comment on contemporary politics, a method of indirect political statement which was continued through her patronage and that of her sons. Samuel Daniel's Cleopatra (1594) was written as a companion to her translation, and William Shakespeare's Anthony and Cleopatra (circa 1606) was directly influenced by her Antonius .

Garnier's work is based on Plutarch's Life of Antonius but dramatizes only his final days. As the play opens, Antonius, once the most powerful man in the Roman empire, has become so besotted with love for the Egyptian queen Cleopatra that he has thrown away his power and his marriage to Caesar's sister, Octavia. At war with Octavius Caesar, he has lost the battle of Actium by foolishly fleeing with Cleopatra and is now besieged in Alexandria. The play is written in the form of Senecan closet drama, emphasizing character rather than action. Major events take place offstage; the drama consists of a series of soliloquies, interspersed with discussions with servants and friends, and comments by a chorus, representing "first Egyptians and after Roman soldiers." Acts 1 and 3 are devoted primarily to Antony, Acts 2 and 5 to Cleopatra, and Act 4 to Octavius Caesar. Antony and Cleopatra learn to stop blaming fate or each other, and to accept responsibility for the devastating consequences of their abandoning of public duty for private pleasure. As in Greek drama, the chorus comments on the action, the characters, and particularly on the consequences of the ruler's acts for the people.

While there are no explicit references to English politics, the play was particularly appropriate in the turbulent 1590s, when England feared that Elizabeth's death would plunge them into a civil war as bloody as Rome's. The form of the closet drama, more suitable for reading aloud on a country estate than for acting on the public stage, was popular enough that Antonius was republished in 1595 and was followed by similar works on historical themes by Samuel Daniel, Thomas Kyd, Samuel Brandon, Sir Fulke Greville, William Alexander (later Earl of Stirling), and Elizabeth Cary, Viscountess Falkland.

Published with Antonius, Mary Sidney's translation of Philippe de Mornay's Discours de la vie et de la mort (1576) one of a series of translations undertaken by Philip Sidney and his continental friends to support Mornay and the Huguenot cause. A close friend of Philip Sidney, Mornay had visited England in 1578 and had probably met the countess on that trip. His meditation on death as the beginning of true life was particularly suited to the countess's own grief for the recent deaths in her family, Like Antonius , the Discourse also served as an oblique commentary on court politics, demonstrating the vanity of earthly ambition as had previous sixteenth-century writers such as Desiderius Erasmus, Sir Thomas More, and Sir Thomas Wyatt. Like Antonius, Mornay's work emphasizes the dangers of civil war, although Mornay concludes that "we find greater civil war within ourselves." The theme is Christian stoicism: "Happy is he only who in mind lives contented: and he most of all unhappy, whom nothing he can have can content."

The Countess of Pembroke also translated Petrarch's "The Triumph of Death" (written 1348, published 1470) from Italian, preserving the original terza rima form. She may have translated the other five poems of the Trionfi, since the only extant manuscript is a transcript of a copy Sir John Harington sent to his cousin Lucy, Countess of Bedford, on 19 December 1600, along with three of the countess's 107 Psalms and some other pieces; certainly Thomas Moffett's suggestion in his Silkworms (1599) that Sidney "let Petrarch sleep, give rest to sacred writ" indicates a substantial project.

Like the Discourse, "The Triumph of Death" offers consolation to the bereaved; the poem also permitted the countess to interject a female voice into the Petrarchan tradition. English Petrarchanists had focused on the first part of the Canzoniere, sonnets in which Laura is given little chance to speak. In "The Triumph of Death" the spirit of Laura eloquently describes the experience of death, the joy of heaven, and her love for Petrarch. Even though the original was written by a man, Mary Sidney's vibrant and eloquent Laura provided an entry into the genre of love poetry for English women.

Sometime in the early 1590s, probably while she was completing her Petrarch translation, the countess had begun the work for which she is known, her metric translation of Psalms 44-150 that completes and revises a project that her brother Philip had begun in his final years. Although the Psalms have always been an important part of Judeo-Christian worship, translating them into the vernacular for private meditation and public singing had become a particularly Protestant activity in the sixteenth century. When the countess first began her metric versions, she remained fairly close to the phrasing and interpretation familiar to her from Miles Coverdale's prose version in the Great Bible, incorporated into the Book of Common Prayer. Her more polished versions, transcribed by Sir John Davies of Hereford in the Penshurst manuscript, evidence a scholarly process of revision, however. Choosing Protestant scholarship based on the original Hebrew, the countess revised her Psalms to be closer to the Geneva Bible than to the Great Bible, with considerable reliance on Théodore de Bèze (in the original Latin and in Anthony Gilby's English translation), on John Calvin, and on Les Psaumes de David mis en rime Françoise, par Clément Marot, et Théodore de Bèze (1562). References are also made to other continental versions and to earlier English metrical Psalms, such as those by Anne Lok and Matthew Parker.

The countess used 128 different verse forms for the 107 Psalms she translated (Psalm 119 has twenty-two sections), making her achievement significant for metrical variety as well as for the content, Like her Genevan sources, the countess used the Psalms to comment on contemporary politics, particularly the persecution of "the godly," as Protestants called themselves. By expanding metaphors and descriptions present in the original Hebrew, Sidney also incorporated her experience at Elizabeth's court, as well as female experiences of marriage and childbirth.

The Psalms were essentially completed by 1599, the date recorded on the Tixall Manuscript owned by Dr. Bent Juel-Jensen. This manuscript also includes the unique copies of two poems, Sir Philip Sidney and "Even Now That Care," a dedicatory poem to Queen Elizabeth. In "Angel Spirit" the countess makes the traditional gesture of humility, saying as other writers had done that her ability is not equal to the task of praising her brother. She calls the paraphrase of the Psalms a "half-maimed piece," begun by "thy matchless Muse," the rest pieced together by herself. As in several of her Psalms, she develops a metaphor from accounting, adding up the sum of her woes. Unlike "The Doleful Lay of Clorinda," Sidney final elegy for her brother avoids pastoral conventions in order to make a direct statement of her loss and of her determination to honor him by her writing; her tears have "dissolved to ink." The poem is signed, "By the sister of that Incomparable Sidney," paralleling her self-designation as "Sister of Sir Philip Sidney" in a business letter of 8 July 1603 to Sir Julius Caesar.

As Beth Wynne Fisken has shown, the humility of Sidney's phrasing in "Angel Spirit" partly masks the boldness of her literary initiative. Her literary career was both inspired by her brother and enabled by his death; as his literary heir, she could accomplish things usually restricted to the male prerogative by using (consciously or unconsciously) the traditionally feminine role of grieving relative to create a public persona. Her grief was undoubtedly genuine, but so was her poetic ambition.

"Even Now That Care," Sidney's dedicatory poem intended for presentation to Queen Elizabeth, continues her praise of her brother, presenting his death as martyrdom for the Protestant cause, and reminding Elizabeth that he would not have died if she had favored him as she ought to have done. By using the Protestant code in phrases like "these most active times" and in comparing the monarch to King David, she was urging the queen to act on behalf of continental Protestants. The poem may also provide evidence that the countess worked on the Psalms from the beginning, for she says that they originally had two authors, but now only one is left. In an apt metaphor, the countess says that Sir Philip set up the warp, the structural threads, while she wove the web, or completed the work. Together they have woven a cloth that becomes a "livery robe" for the queen to present as she sees fit.

 

Her praise of Queen Elizabeth continues in "A Dialogue between Two Shepherds, Thenot and Piers, in Praise of Astrea." Like the Psalms manuscript, it was apparently intended for presentation during the queen's visit to one of the Pembroke estates, most likely the visit to Wilton planned for August 1599, Using the familiar form of pastoral dialogue, Mary Sidney adapts the conventions of the encomium, or poem of praise, to question the adequacy of language. Platonic Thenot debates the nature of poetic language with Protestant Piers, who says that one need only tell the truth plainly. Since it is a dialogue, we need not identify the countess with either position, but Piers concludes that only silence is adequate for the queen's praise, an ambiguity that calls into question the genre of the encomium itself.

Sidney would have been particularly anxious to please the queen at this time, since she was seeking a suitable position at court for her eldest son, William, a teenager ready to begin his public career. An obsequious letter written in January of 1601 gives the queen even more extravagant praise than "Astrea." Written in her own hand with unaccustomed neatness, it employs the thickest flattery to recall the queen's kindness in bringing her to court when she was a girl, asks similar favors for her son, and is signed in the extreme lower right corner, the position of most humility.

Sidney had need of the queen's favor. The earl of Pembroke, a man in his late sixties who had long been struggling against serious illness, was drawing near death. William would not come of age until April of 1601, leaving the countess, her children, and all the Pembroke property vulnerable to the Court of Wards. Pembroke did die on 19 January 1601. Instead of comforting his mother, young William added to her problems when he seduced and abandoned Mary Fitton, one of the queen's Maids of honor. By refusing to marry his pregnant mistress, he incurred Elizabeth's fury and blotted a promising career. Although he was finally released from Fleet Prison on grounds that his health was failing, William was not able to obtain a suitable position at court until the queen died and James came to the throne. These events may account for the period of estrangement from his mother indicated by Robert Sidney's correspondence.

Under Queen Elizabeth the Countess of Pembroke had held a position of honor and some power; in the opening years of James's reign the widowed Dowager Countess lost her influence at court. She turned from literary endeavors to administration. Trying to protect the family property in Cardiff from popular uprisings against the seigneurial hold of the Pembrokes, she lodged charges of jewel theft, piracy, and murder against several residents of Cardiff, particularly Edmund Mathew. Mathew was allied to the Herberts by marriage but had turned against them after Pembroke jailed his older brother, William, for piracy. The convoluted cases can be traced through the countess's correspondence and the records of the Star Chamber.

In 1604 her son William married Mary Talbot, daughter of the Earl of Shrewsbury; her son Philip married Susan de Vere, the granddaughter of Lord Burghley; and her niece Mary Sidney married Sir Robert Wroth. Arrangements for Anne's marriage were apparently thwarted by a recurring illness, although she had been well enough to participate in Ben Jonson's Masque of Blackness in January. The countess took her to Cambridge for the best medical care, but Anne died there, probably in December 1606.

From 1608 to 1614 a hiatus remains in the records of Mary Sidney's life. From 1614 through 1616, however, we have detailed accounts of her journey to the fashionable continental resort of Spa and her amusements there. By that time her son William had matured into a leader of the anti-Spanish party at court, and her son Philip had become one of James's favorites, so she apparently left politics to them. Her role as literary patron had also been assumed by her sons; only a few writers, such as her old friends Samuel Daniel and Sir John Davies, continued to dedicate works to her. Her religious and political activities of the 1590s were reputedly replaced by amusements that included shooting pistols with the Countess of Barlemont, taking tobacco, playing cards, dancing, and flirting with her handsome and learned doctor, Sir Matthew Lister. That romance may be reflected in the courtship of Simena and Lissius in Lady Wroth's pastoral drama Love's Victory . Letters attributed to Mary Sidney by John Donne the Younger indicate that she continued to write and to exchange manuscripts with friends, but any such works have been lost.

As a mature woman she also undertook acts of self-definition: after her new daughter-in-law Mary Talbot adopted her signature, "M. Pembroke," Sidney used the usual male signature "Pembroke," distinguished from that of her son by the surrounding "S fermé," or closed S, to represent Sidney. She also adapted the Sidney crest of a pheon, or arrow head, into her own deviceitwo pheons intersecting to form an M for Mary and crossed by an H for Herbert. She began to use that device to seal her letters and had it carved in a recurring motif (along with the Sidney porcupine and the Dudley bear with ragged staff) on a stone frieze that decorated Houghton House, a home she had designed and built on land granted to her in Bedfordshire by the king. She asserted her role as writer in the portrait engraved by Simon van de Passe, which shows her holding her translation of "David's Psalms."

Sidney's final years seem to have been relatively cheerful. Reconciled with her sons, she presided over local society in Bedfordshire, fiercely protected her property through legal suits, and continued to enjoy the company of Sir Matthew Lister. She also maintained a London home and occasionally took part in court activities, such as the funeral of Queen Anne in 1619, when she visited with friends and relatives, including Lady Wroth and Anne Clifford. As mother of the Earls of Pembroke and Montgomery, she was honored by the king, who visited her at Houghton House in July 1621. In the 1590s she had been praised for her writing and patronage, for her music and her needlework, and for her Protestant piety. In the seventeenth century she became part of the legend of Sir Philip Sidney and was praised both as a writer and for personal qualities, her "virtue, wisdom, learning, dignity," as Aemilia Lanyer wrote. Sidney was usually linked with her brother, as she had desired. John Donne, for example, praised the pair as the Moses and Miriam who "Both told us what, and taught us how to do.... They tell us why, and teach us how to sing" in their translation of the Psalms.

Mary Sidney died from smallpox at her home on Aldersgate Street in London on 25 September 1621 and is buried under the choir steps of Salisbury Cathedral with her husband and sons. No contemporary monument survives, but a brass plaque commemorating them was installed by the sixteenth earl of Pembroke in 1963. The most familiar eulogy is that of William Browne, written in hopes of patronage from her son William, praising her as "Sidney's sister, Pembroke's mother." Certainly she played those roles well, but she was also a writer, translator, editor, patron, administrator, and Protestant activist. A woman who used all the resources available to heriher husband's wealth, her own position as a Sidney, her brother's legendary deathishe stretched the boundaries of what was possible for a woman and became a role model for seventeenth-century women writers, including Aemilia Lanyer and Mary Sidney, Lady Wroth.

Although she was renowned in her time, so much so that one seventeenth-century manuscript identifies Sir Philip as "brother to the Countess of Pembroke," her reputation suffered a subsequent decline, reducing her to a mere shadow of her brother. Earlier in this century her part in editing the Arcadia was denounced as bowdlerizing, her translation of Garnier and her literary patronage were (despite chronological improbabilities) termed attacks on Shakespeare, and her other works were either dismissed as worthless or attributed to male writers. The process of reevaluating Sidney's patronage and literary works was begun by Frances B. Young in her 1912 biography, and continued by scholars such current scholars as John Rathmell, Coburn Freer, Gary Waller, Mary Ellen Lamb, Michael G. Brennan, Noel J. Kinnamon, Barbara Lewalski, Beth Wynne Fisken, and Susanne Woods. Included in virtually all recent Elizabethan anthologies, Mary Sidney is now recognized as the most important literary woman of her generation, one who helped to open up possibilities for other women writers.

Wilton House

Mary Sidney turned Wilton House into a "paradise for poets", known as the "Wilton Circle," a salon-type literary group sustained by her hospitality, which included Edmund Spenser, Samuel Daniel, Michael Drayton, Ben Jonson, and Sir John Davies. John Aubrey wrote, "Wilton House was like a college, there were so many learned and ingenious persons. She was the greatest patroness of wit and learning of any lady in her time." It has been suggested that the premiere of Shakespeare's As You Like It was at Wilton during her life.

First page of As You Like It from the First Folio of Shakespeare's plays; the first performance of the play may have been at Mary Sidney's house at Wilton

Sidney received more dedications than any other woman of non-royal status. By some accounts, King James I visited Wilton on his way to his coronation in 1603 and stayed again at Wilton following the coronation to avoid the plague. She was regarded as a muse by Daniel in his sonnet cycle "Delia", an anagram for ideal.

Her brother, Philip Sidney, wrote much of his Arcadia in her presence, at Wilton House. He also probably began preparing his English lyric version of the Book of Psalms at Wilton as well.

Sidney psalter

Philip Sidney had completed translating 43 of the 150 Psalms at the time of his death on a military campaign against the Spanish in the Netherlands in 1586. She finished his translation, composing Psalms 44 through to 150 in a dazzling array of verse forms, using the 1560 Geneva Bible and commentaries by John Calvin and Theodore Beza. Hallett Smith has called the psalter a "School of English Versification" Smith (1946), of 171 poems (Psalm 119 is a gathering of 22 separate ones). A copy of the completed psalter was prepared for Queen Elizabeth I in 1599, in anticipation of a royal visit to Wilton, but Elizabeth cancelled her planned visit. This work is usually referred to as The Sidney Psalms or The Sidney-Pembroke Psalter and regarded as a major influence on the development of English religious lyric poetry in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. John Donne wrote a poem celebrating the verse psalter and claiming he could "scarce" call the English Church reformed until its psalter had been modelled after the poetic transcriptions of Philip Sidney and Mary Herbert.

Although the psalms were not printed in her lifetime, they were extensively distributed in manuscript. There are 17 manuscripts extant today. A later engraving of Herbert shows her holding them. Her literary influence can be seen in literary patronage, in publishing her brother's works and in her own verse forms, dramas, and translations. Contemporary poets who commended Herbert's psalms include Samuel Daniel, Sir John Davies, John Donne, Michael Drayton, Sir John Harington, Ben Jonson, Emilia Lanier and Thomas Moffet. The importance of these is evident in the devotional lyrics of Barnabe Barnes, Nicholas Breton, Henry Constable, Francis Davison, Giles Fletcher, and Abraham Fraunce. Their influence on the later religious poetry of Donne, George Herbert, Henry Vaughan, and John Milton has been critically recognized since Louis Martz placed it at the start of a developing tradition of 17th-century devotional lyricism.

Sidney was instrumental in bringing her brother's An Apology for Poetry or Defence of Poesy into print. She circulated the Sidney–Pembroke Psalter in manuscript at about the same time. This suggests a common purpose in their design. Both argued, in formally different ways, for the ethical recuperation of poetry as an instrument for moral instruction — particularly religious instruction. Sidney also took on editing and publishing her brother's Arcadia, which he claimed to have written in her presence as The Countesse of Pembroke's Arcadia.

Other works

Sydney's closet drama Antonius is a translation of a French play, Marc-Antoine (1578) by Robert Garnier. Mary is known to have translated two other works: A Discourse of Life and Death by Philippe de Mornay, published with Antonius in 1592, and Petrarch's The Triumph of Death, circulated in manuscript. Her original poems include the pastoral "A Dialogue betweene Two Shepheards, Thenot and Piers, in praise of Astrea," and two dedicatory addresses, one to Elizabeth I and one to her own brother Philip, contained in the Tixall manuscript copy of her verse psalter. An elegy for Philip, "The dolefull lay of Clorinda", was published in Colin Clouts Come Home Againe (1595) and attributed to Spenser and to Mary Herbert, but Pamela Coren attributes it to Spenser, though also saying that Mary's poetic reputation does not suffer from loss of the attribution.

By at least 1591, the Pembrokes were providing patronage to a playing company, Pembroke's Men, one of the early companies to perform works of Shakespeare. According to one account, Shakespeare's company "The King's Men" performed at Wilton at this time.

June and Paul Schlueter published an article in The Times Literary Supplement of 23 July 2010 describing a manuscript of newly discovered works by Mary Sidney Herbert.

Her poetic epitaph, ascribed to Ben Jonson but more likely to have been written in an earlier form by the poets William Browne and her son William, summarizes how she was regarded in her own day:

Underneath this sable hearse,

Lies the subject of all verse,

Sidney's sister, Pembroke's mother.

Death, ere thou hast slain another

Fair and learned and good as she,

Time shall throw a dart at thee.

Her literary talents and aforementioned family connections to Shakespeare has caused her to be nominated as one of the many claimants named as the true author of the works of William Shakespeare in the Shakespeare authorship question.

In popular culture

Mary Sidney appears as a character in Deborah Harkness's novel Shadow of Night, which is the second instalment of her All Souls trilogy. Sidney is portrayed by Amanda Hale in the second season of the television adaptation of the book.