23- ] Grammar American & British
Conjunction
A word used to link clauses within a sentence. For example, in the
following sentences, but and if are conjunctions:
It was raining but it wasn’t cold.
We won’t go out if the weather’s bad.
There are two kinds of conjunction:
a. Coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or
and so). These join (and are placed between) two clauses of equal weight.
Do you want to go now or shall we wait a bit longer?
And, but and or are also used to join words or phrases within a
clause.
b. Subordinating conjunctions (e.g. when,
while, before, after, since, until, if, because, although, that). These go at
the beginning of a subordinate clause:
We were hungry because we hadn’t eaten all day.
Although we’d had plenty to eat, we were still hungry.
We were hungry when we got home.
Connective
A connective is a word or phrase that links clauses or sentences.
Connectives can be conjunctions (e.g. but, when, because) or connecting adverbs
(e.g. however, then, therefore).
Connecting adverbs (and adverbial phrases and clauses) maintain the cohesion of a
text in several basic ways, including:
addition: also, furthermore, moreover
opposition: however, nevertheless, on the other hand
reinforcing: besides, anyway, after all
explaining: for example, in other words, that is to say
listing: first(ly), first of all, finally
indicating result: therefore, consequently, as a result
indicating time: just then, meanwhile, later
Commas are often used to mark off connecting adverbs or adverbial
phrases or clauses:
First of all, I want to say …
I didn’t think much of the film. Helen, on the other hand, enjoyed
it.
Connecting adverbs and conjunctions function differently.
Conjunctions (like but and although) join clauses
within a sentence. Connecting adverbs (like however) connect ideas
but the clauses remain separate
sentences:
I was angry but I didn’t say anything. (but is a conjunction - one
sentence)
Although I was angry, I didn’t say anything. (although is a
conjunction - one sentence)
I was angry. However, I didn’t say anything. (however is an adverb
- two sentences)
Connectives
Connectives are connecting adverbs that link ideas which may be in
different sentences or paragraphs. Connectives are used between paragraphs or
between sentences in order to show a connection between one part of your
writing and another. They make your writing more powerful.
What are the 4 types of connectives?
When a speaker uses connectives properly the speech will flow
smoothly and make complex ideas understandable. Each speech should contain the
following four connectives: transitions, internal previews, internal summaries,
and signposts.
Using Connectives
INSTRUCTIONS
First, Read about each of the types of connectives listed below,
then Place connectives in the appropriate places in your outlines.
Connectives are words or phrases that join the thoughts of a speech
together and indicate the relationship between them.
Connectives are essential to help the audience focus on main ideas
without having them guess which ideas the speaker thinks
are important. The audience is able to tune into what points the
speaker has talked about and what point the speaker is presently
talking about. When a speaker uses connectives properly the speech
will flow smoothly and make complex ideas understandable.
Each speech should contain the following four connectives:
transitions, internal previews, internal summaries, and signposts.
TRANSITIONS:
Transitions are used to indicate movement from a completed thought
to a new thought. Transitions indicate what idea is being left
and what idea is coming up. The following examples indicate the use
of this connective.
In addition to being a problem nationwide, suicide is also a
problem on our campus.
So much for the problem; what about the solution?
Now that you have seen what a serious problem illiteracy is, you
may be asking yourself-“How can I help?”
Since we know a little more about what memory is, let us turn to
the relationship between the human brain and the
process of memory.
INTERNAL PREVIEWS:
Internal previews direct the audience to what areas will be covered
next. Internal previews generally appear once the speaker has
finished a transition and after a new main point. The speaker
simply previews the sub-points which make up the point being
addressed. The following examples show how internal previews key
the audience into the areas to be discussed.
We can help solve the problem by knowing how to identify the
symptoms and knowing whom to contact for help.
Puzzles can be used for entertainment, as an indication of
intelligence, and to help us develop better
problem-solving techniques.
INTERNAL SUMMARIES:
Internal summaries are the flip side of internal previews. Rather
than indicating what sub-points are to follow in the speech, internal
summaries remind the listeners what sub-points have been discussed.
Internal summaries are excellent ways to reinforce and
clarify ideas which are essential for the audience to remember. The
following are examples of internal summaries.
Therefore, anyone can help solve the problem by knowing how to
identify the symptoms, and knowing
whom to contact about helping them.
I hope I’ve made it clear that needed information is slipping right
by us because the news doesn’t arouse our attention,
it comes at us in unorganized segments, and the bits and pieces
don’t allow the development of a schemata.
SIGNPOSTS:
Signposts are short statements which tell the audience where the
speaker is in the speech. Often times signposts are numbers of words
which suggest that what the speaker is about to say is important. The following
are examples of signposts.
Examples
Let’s first take a look at the nature of the problem.
The third warning sign is giving away one’s possessions.
And first, the most important thing to remember is child custody
battle injure the children.
To begin with, we must examine the engine of the car.
COMBINATION OF CONNECTIVES:
Connectives, when combined effectively, allow a speech to flow
smoothly through each idea. The following is an example:
(Internal Summary: I hope I have made it clear that Kahiko is used
as a system of passing on history and knowledge about the Gods, Goddesses,
Kings and Queens. Kahiko can be easily identified by unsmiling faces, and stiff
motions of the dancers.)
(Transition: Since we now know a little about ancient hula, let us
turn to the modern hula.)
II. (Main Point 2) The second major form of hula in Hawaii is the
modern hula or 'Auana.
(Internal Preview: 'Auana is used for entertainment, it narrates
love stories, and is distinguishable from kahiko.)
Another way to connect paragraphs and sentences is to use linking
words or phrases. These linking words are also called connectives.
Using connectives to link information
In the following paragraph, Fred uses four connectives:
The story is very different in poorly run residential homes. At
Cedar Court Nursing Home, for example, residents’ rights to privacy and dignity
are totally ignored by staff and residents are treated as objects of care
(Peace, 2005, p. 75). As a result, the quality of life experienced by these
residents appears to be very low. It is therefore clear that, in residential
homes too, when careers fail to distinguish between private and public spaces
and disregard residents’ wishes and needs, the quality of care suffers.
As you can see, in this example the connectives are used in the
following ways:
for example: This connective helps the reader to understand that
the situation explained in the second sentence is an example of the more
general situation introduced in the topic sentence
as a result: this connective links the sentence describing the example to a
sentence that describes its effect
therefore: this connective links the last sentence to the previous ones by
introducing a consequence of the situation they describe
too: this connective links the situation referred to in the last
sentence to situations described in previous sentences.
A range of connectives can be used in different ways to link the
ideas contained in sentences and paragraphs. In the
following sections you will look at connectives used to:
add information and ideas
add an example
compare and contrast ideas
express cause and effect relationships.
Conjunctions
, [ Linking Words ].
What Are Conjunctions?
All conjunctions join words, phrases, and clauses together
smoothly. "And" and "but" win the popularity contest for
generic conjunctions. They are considered coordinating conjunctions.
Words such as these make it possible for two different ideas to
hinge upon each other in one complete sentence. With conjunctions, we're able
to write more complex and interesting ideas.
Linking words help you to connect ideas and sentences when you
speak or write English. We can use linking words to give examples, add
information, summarize, sequence information, give a reason or result, or to
contrast ideas.
Here’s a list of the most common linking words and phrases:
1- ]
Giving examples
For example
For instance
Namely
The most common way to give examples is by using for example or for
instance.
Namely refers to something by name.
“There are two problems: namely, the expense and the time.”
2- ]Adding
information
And
In addition
As well as
Also
Too
Furthermore
Moreover
Apart from
In addition to
Besides
Ideas are often linked by and. In a list, you
put a comma between each item, but not before and.
“We discussed training, education and the budget.”
Also is used to add an extra idea or emphasis. “We also spoke
about marketing.”
You can use also with not only to give emphasis.
“We are concerned not only by the costs, but also by the
competition.”
We don’t usually start a sentence with also. If you want to start a
sentence with a phrase that means also, you can use In addition, or In addition
to this…
As well as can be used at the beginning or the middle of a
sentence.
“As well as the costs, we are concerned by the competition.”
“We are interested in costs as well as the competition.”
Too goes either at the end of the sentence, or after the subject
and means as well.
“They were concerned too.”
“I, too, was concerned.”
Apart from and besides are often used to mean as well as, or in
addition to.
“Apart from Rover, we are the largest sports car manufacturer.”
“Besides Rover, we are the largest sports car manufacturer.”
Moreover and furthermore add extra information to the point you are
making.
“Marketing plans give us an idea of the potential market. Moreover,
they tell us about the competition.”
Correlative
Conjunctions .
Correlative conjunctions are sort of like tag-team conjunctions.
... Correlative conjunctions include pairs such as "both/and,"
"either/or," "neither/nor," "not/but" and
"not only/but also." For example: either/or - I want either the
cheesecake or the chocolate cake.
Not only
------- but also .
First of all, when do we use not only, but also? Well, we use it
when we have two things and we want to give a little extra emphasis to the
second thing because it’s even better, or even worse, or more surprising, or
more impressive, or more shocking than the first thing. I think you’ll see as I
give examples throughout this lesson.
There are two ways to use not only, but also. You can use it in the
middle and end of the sentence, or you can actually use it to start a sentence
with not only. There are some grammatical considerations we have to keep in
mind.
Okay, so using not only, but also in the middle and end of a
sentence I can say, “I’ve taught English not only in the U.S., but also in
other countries.” Or you could say, let’s say you’re talking about someone who
is a model. You could say, “She’s not only beautiful, but also very smart.”
As you can see in both of these examples, the second part, the part
that comes after “but also” is just a little more interesting or better than
the first part, so we just want to give a little extra emphasis. Because, of
course, you could simply say, “She’s beautiful and smart.” That’s just neutral.
But if you say, “She’s not only beautiful, but also smart,” it kind of gives a
little bit of extra emphasis to that second part; being smart.
Now, the key if you use not only, but also like this, is that the
two parts of the sentence have to be parallel. If you use an adjective after
not only, you need to use an adjective after but also. So, beautiful and smart,
those are both adjectives. “She’s not only beautiful, but also very smart.”
It would sound strange if you said, “She’s not only beautiful, but
also a singer,” because beautiful is an adjective, and a singer is a noun, and
it’s not parallel. You could have two nouns. You could say, “She’s not only a
model, but also a singer.” That would be all right. That sounds natural, because
we have a noun and a noun.
Another example of a sentence that sounds strange is, don’t say
this: “He ate not only the pizza, but also the soda.” That doesn’t make sense
because you eat pizza, but you don’t eat soda. You drink soda. So we can fix
this sentence by using two different verbs after not only and but also. So you
can say, “He not only ate the pizza, but also drank the soda.” I hope you can
see that when you use not only and but also like this the two parts of the
sentence need to be parallel so that it makes sense and it sounds natural.
How about using not only to start a sentence? An example of
this would be, “Not only does he play guitar, but he also writes his own
songs.” Now, notice in the first part of the sentence we don’t say, “Not only
he plays.” We actually have an auxiliary verb: does. We say, “Not only does he
play guitar.” This is just a special thing that we do with not only, but also
sentences. Normally, we would say, “He plays guitar.” But when you start it
with not only, you say, “Not only does he play guitar, he also writes his own
songs.” In sentences like this that start with not only, the but is optional.
Some people eliminate it and just say, “He also writes his own songs.”
That’s an example in the present tense. If we’re talking about the
past, we can also use this construction, but now we need to use the auxiliary
verb, did in the past. So, “Not only did she fail the course, but she also
dropped out of college.” That means she completely left the program of studies.
“Not only did she fail.” Don’t say, “Not only she failed.” “Not only did she
fail the course, but she also dropped out of college.” Okay? The second part of
the sentence is normal. After but also, just use the simple past. You don’t
need to use an auxiliary verb there.
You can also use this construction in the future. “Not only
will you learn grammar in my advanced English grammar course, you’ll also put
it into practice.” In this case, the auxiliary verb is “will”. “Not only will
you learn grammar, but you’ll also,” or, “you’ll also put it into practice.”
And this is true, by the way! So why don’t you try writing a couple of not
only, but also sentences in the comments based on what you learned in today’s
lesson?
When using not only . . . but also in a sentence, parallelism
should be the goal. It means that the words following both parts of this
correlative conjunction (i.e., not only and but also) should belong to the same
parts of speech. For example, if a verb follows not only, then a verb should
also follow but also.
To add emphasis, we can use not only at the beginning of a clause. When we do
this, we invert the subject and the verb:
Examples
Not only was it raining all
day at the wedding but also the band was late.
Not only will they paint the outside of the house but also the
inside.
Not only did Emily start playing the piano before she could speak,
but her mother taught her to compose music at a very early age.
This is where it gets a little more interesting. We can leave out
also when the sentence sounds natural without it. We can use not only at the
beginning of a clause.
We use not only X but also Y in formal contexts:
The war caused not only destruction and death but also generations
of hatred between the two communities.
The car not only is economical but also feels good to drive.
This investigation is not only one that is continuing and worldwide
but also one that we expect to continue for quite some time.
We can sometimes leave out also:
Example
I identified with Denzel Washington not only as an actor but as a
person.
To add emphasis, we can use not only at the beginning of a clause.
When we do this, we invert the subject and the verb:
Examples
Not only was it raining all day at the wedding but also the band
was late.
Not only will they paint the outside of the house but also the
inside.
When there is no auxiliary verb or main verb be, we use do, does,
did:
Example
Not only did she forget my birthday, but she also didn’t even
apologize for forgetting it.
Not only…but also Uses
Not only and also are paired with but to add emphasis to two
coordinated elements in a sentence. Only
and also are focusing adverbs, not is a negative adverb and but is a
coordinator for contrast. This paired
expression is also called a "correlative conjunction".
NOUN PHRASES
Not only the movie but also the play was good. (verb agrees with 2nd noun)
I liked not only the movie but also the play.
MODIFIERS
The actors were not only engaging but also skillful in their
performances.
The plot moved not only swiftly but also artfully throughout the
movie.
The movie is being shown not only at the Fox Theater but also
neighborhood theaters.
VERBS
Ebert not only likes but also recommends the movie.
INFINITIVES & GERUNDS
The directors wanted not only to win but also to receive recognition
for their work.
The producers ended up not only extending but also expanding their
filming hours.
Both
…… and .
Both is paired with and to add emphasis to two coordinated elements
in a sentence. Both is a focusing adverb
and is a coordinator for addition. This
paired expression is also called a "correlative conjunction".
NOUN PHRASES
Both the movie and the play were good. (plural verb form)
I liked both the movie and the play.
MODIFIERS
The actors were both engaging and skillful in their performances.
(Adj.)
The plot moved both swiftly and artfully throughout the movie. (Adv.)
The movie is being shown both at The Fox Theater and in
neighborhood theaters. (Prep Phrase)
VERBS
Ebert both likes and recommends the movie.
INFINITIVES & GERUNDS
The directors wanted both to win and to receive recognition for
their work.
The producers ended up both extending and expanding their filming
hours.
Either
------ or .
When there are two or more options or alternatives, but we are not
sure which of them is definite, we use 'either or'. The verb agrees with the
subject preceding it. ... The verb agrees with the subject preceding it. If the
subject is singular, the verb has to be singular.
He cooks dinner. Or she cooks dinner.
Either he or she cooks dinner.
She can have tea. Or she can have coffee.
She can have either tea or coffee.
He washes the clothes himself. Or he asks her to wash them.
He either washes the clothes himself or asks her to wash them.
Either… or… connects two choices:
I’ve saved some money to buy either [choice 1] a DVD player or
[choice 2] an MP3 player.
We use either… or… to connect items which are the same grammatical
type, e.g. words, phrases, clauses:
Examples
We can either pre- or post-date the document. I don’t mind.
(connecting prefixes)
It’s either black or grey. I can’t remember. (connecting words)
You can stay either with me or with Janet. (connecting phrases)
Either I drive to the airport or I get a taxi. (connecting clauses)
Neither,
neither … nor and not … either
Neither
… nor
The opposite of either… or… is neither… nor…. We use it to make
negative statements connecting items:
We got so wet. We had neither umbrellas nor raincoats with us!
Neither as a determiner
Neither allows us to make a negative statement about two people or
things at the same time. Neither goes before singular countable nouns. We use
it to say ‘not either’ in relation to two things. Neither can be pronounced
/ˈnaɪðə(r)/ or /ˈni:ðə(r)/.
Neither parent came to meet the teacher. (The mother didn’t come
and the father didn’t come.)
Neither dress fitted her. (There were two dresses and not one of
them fitted her.)
We use neither of before pronouns and plural countable nouns which
have a determiner (my, his, the) before them:
Examples
Neither of us went to the concert.
Neither of the birthday cards was suitable.
Spoken English:
In formal styles, we use neither of with a singular verb when it is
the subject. However, in informal speaking, people often use plural verbs:
Neither of my best friends was around.
Neither of them were interested in going to university.
In speaking, we can use neither on its own in replies when we are
referring to two things that have already been mentioned:
A:
Mike, which would you prefer, tea or coffee?
B:
Neither thanks. I’ve just had a coffee.
We can use neither as a conjunction with nor. It connects two or
more negative alternatives. This can sound formal in speaking:
Neither Brian nor his wife mentioned anything about moving house.
(Brian didn’t mention that they were moving house and his wife didn’t mention
that they were moving house.)
Neither Italy nor France got to the quarter finals last year.
Not with neither and nor
When a clause with neither or nor is used after a negative clause,
we invert the subject and the verb after neither and nor:
He hadn’t done any homework, neither had he brought any of his
books to class.
We didn’t get to see the castle, nor did we see the cathedral.
Neither
do …., Nor can ……
We use neither and nor + auxiliary/modal verb + subject to mean
‘also not’:
A:
I hate snakes. I can’t even look at a picture of a snake.
B:
Neither can I.
Not: I can’t also.
A:
Jacqueline doesn’t drive.
B:
Nor does Gina.
Not: Gina doesn’t also.
Not
… either
We can use not … either to mean ‘also not’, but we do not change
the word order of the auxiliary or modal verb and subject:
A:
I haven’t ever tasted caviar.
B:
I haven’t either. (or Neither have I./Nor have I.)
A:
I didn’t see Lesley at the concert.
B:
I didn’t either. (or Neither did I./Nor did I.)
In informal speaking, we often say me neither:
A:
I can’t smell anything.
B:
Me neither. (or I can’t either.)
Neither: typical errors
We use neither, not none, when we are talking about two people or
things:
Books and television are different. Neither of them should replace
the other.
Not: None of them …
We don’t normally use both (of) + not to make a negative statement
about two people or things:
Neither of these shirts is/are dry yet.
Not: Both of these shirts aren’t dry yet.
The less formal alternative is to use and … not … either:
Italy didn’t get to the quarter finals last year and France didn’t
either.
Neither our families nor our friends know that we are getting
married!
So am I, so do
I, Neither do I
We use so with be and with modal and auxiliary verbs to mean ‘in
the same way’, ‘as well’ or ‘too’. We use it in order to avoid repeating a
verb, especially in short responses with pronoun subjects. When we use so in
this way, we invert the verb and subject, and we do not repeat the main verb
(so + verb [= v] + subject [= s]):
Geoff is a very good long-distance runner and so his
wife.
A:
What are you doing tonight?
B:I’ve got loads of exam marking to do and I’m staying
at home. So am I.
A:
They all joined
the new gym and after three weeks so did he. (… and after three weeks he joined
the gym too.)
Neither
do I
We also use not … either, nor or neither when we want
to give a negative meaning:
A:
I don’t think she’ll be coming to the party.
B:
Nor/Neither do I. (or I don’t either.)
So
So + adjective (so difficult), so + adverb (so slowly)
We often use so when we mean ‘to such a great extent’.
With this meaning, so is a degree adverb that modifies adjectives and other
adverbs:
Using that camera is easy. Why is she making it so
difficult?
Why is she so untidy?
I’m sorry I’m walking so slowly. I’ve hurt my ankle.
It doesn’t always work out so well.
We also use so as an intensifier to mean ‘very, very’:
That motorway is so dangerous. Everyone drives too
fast.
That’s kind of you. Thanks so much for thinking of us.
We often use so with that:
He’s so lazy that he never helps out with the
housework.
It was so dark (that) we could hardly see.
We don’t use so before an adjective + a noun
(attributive adjective). We use such:
She emailed us such lovely pictures of her and Enzo.
Not: … so lovely pictures …
We use such not so to modify noun phrases:
She is such a hard-working colleague.
Not: … so a hard-working colleague.
It’s taken them such a long time to send the travel
brochures.
Not: … so a long time …
So much and so many
We use so before much, many, little and few:
There were so many people on the beach it was
difficult to get into the sea.
There are so few people who know what it is like in
our country for other people from different cultures.
You’ve eaten so little and I’ve eaten so much!
We use so much, not so, before comparatives:
I feel so much better after I’ve been for a run in the
park.
Not: I feel so better …
My house is so much colder than yours.
So as a substitute form
So substituting for an adjective
In formal contexts we can use so instead of an
adjective phrase after a verb:
The bus service was very unreliable when I was young
and it remains so even today. (It remains very unreliable …)
She is very anxious. She’s been so since the accident.
(She’s been very anxious since the accident.)
More so, less so
When we are comparing, we use more so and less so as
substitutes:
The kitchen is very old-fashioned, the living room
more so. (The living room is more old-fashioned than the kitchen.)
My old office was very dark; my new office less so.
(My new office is less dark than my old office.)
So as substitute
With some verbs, we often use so instead of repeating
an object clause, especially in short answers:
A:
Will Megan be at the meeting today?
B:
I think so. (I think Megan will be at the meeting
today.)
The next train is going to be half an hour late. They
told me so when I bought my ticket. (They told me (that) the next train is
going to be half an hour late.)
So with reporting verbs
Spoken English:
Especially in speaking, we sometimes use so in front
position in short responses with reporting verbs such as believe, say, tell,
hear, read:
She’s the most popular singer. So everybody says,
anyway.
A:
Janet got the job.
B:
So I heard. (I heard that Janet got the job.)
A:
The Council has given planning permission for another
shopping center in the city.
B:
So I read in the paper. (I read that the Council has
given planning permission for another shopping center.)
So in exclamations
Spoken English:
When we make exclamative responses, we can use so as a
substitute before the subject and verb be, or subject and modal or auxiliary
verb:
A:
We’re out of salt.
B:
Oh, so we are!
A:
Look Mum, I can climb all the way to the top.
B:
So you can!
So as a conjunction
We use so as a subordinating conjunction to introduce
clauses of result or decision:
I got here late. It was a long journey, so I’m really
tired now.
You are right, of course, so I think we will accept
what the bank offers.
It’s much cheaper with that airline, isn’t it, so I’ll
get all the tickets for us with them.
So and that-clauses
We use so + that as a conjunction to introduce clauses
of reason and explanation:
They both went on a diet so that they could play more
football with their friends.
We also use so + adjective or adverb before
that-clauses. We do not use very in this structure:
It was so hot that we didn’t leave the air-conditioned
room all day.
They drove so fast that they escaped the police car
that was chasing them.
Not: They drove very fast that …
So as a discourse marker
Spoken English:
So is a very common discourse marker in speaking. It
usually occurs at the beginning of clauses and we use it when we are summarizing
what has just been said, or when we are changing topic:
[from a lecture on English literature]
So, we’ve covered the nineteenth century and we’re now
going to look at all the experiments in the novel in the early twentieth
century.
[discussing whether to eat a pudding or keep it till
the following morning]
A:
I’m not having it cold in the morning.
B:
Oh. So what sort of pudding is it?
So, what time does the film start?
So: other uses in speaking
So far means ‘up to now’:
So far we have kept the news within the family.
We use the expression is that so? in responses to
express surprise or suspicion:
A:
When I came to the flat all the lights were still on!
B:
Oh, is that so?
A:
Yes!
Spoken English:
We sometimes use so in informal speaking to indicate
the size or extent of something. We use it in a similar way to this and we
usually use hand gestures to show the size or extent:
[referring to a valuable diamond in a ring]
It’s about so small. (or It’s about this small.)
We also sometimes use so to mean ‘like this’:
Hold the racket in your left hand – so. That’s right.
In speaking, we also use so to intensify words,
phrases and clauses. We stress so quite strongly. This usage is very common
among some younger speakers. It has a meaning similar to just or just like:
I’m so not interested.
That’s so Jack. He always behaves like that. (That’s
just like Jack.)
That is so what I don’t want to hear!
So that
or in order that
We use so that and in order that to talk about
purpose. We often use them with modal verbs (can, would, will, etc.). So that
is far more common than in order that, and in order that is more formal:
I’ll go by car so that I can take more luggage.
We left a message with his neighbor so that he would
know we’d called.
[on a website]
In order that you can sign the form, please print it
out and mail it to this address.
We often leave out that after so in informal
situations:
I’ve made some sandwiches so (that) we can have a
snack on the way.
When referring to the future, we can use the present
simple or will/’ll after so that. We usually use the present simple after in
order that to talk about the future:
We will send you a reminder in order that you arrive
on time for your appointment. (or … so that you arrive on time … or … so that
you’ll arrive on time …)
So that (but not in order that) can also mean ‘with
the result that’:
The birds return every year around March, so that
April is a good time to see them.
In Order
To
In order to is a subordinating conjunction.
We use in order to with an infinitive form of a verb
to express the purpose of something. It introduces a subordinate clause. It is
more common in writing than in speaking:
[main clause]
Mrs. Weaver had to work full-time
[subordinate clause]
in order to earn a living for herself and her family
of five children.
We all need stress in order to achieve and do our best
work.
The negative of in order to is in order not to:
They never parked the big van in front of the house in
order not to upset the neighbors.
Inversion
When does inversion happen?
Inversion happens when we reverse (invert) the normal word order of
a structure, most commonly the subject-verb word order. For example, a
statement has the subject (s) before the verb (v), but to make question word
order, we invert the subject and the verb, with an auxiliary (aux) or modal
verb (m) before the subject (s):
Examples
1- ]She [S] sings. [V]
Does [AUX] she [S] sing? [V]
2- ]They [S] are[AUX] working. [V]
Are they [AUX] [S] working? [V]
3- ]Joe [S] can [M] swim. [V]
Can [M] Joe [S] swim? [V]
The most common type of inversion is question
word order (see above). Inversion also happens in other situations.
Negative adverbs
In formal styles, when we use an adverb with negative meaning (e.g.
never, seldom, rarely, scarcely, hardly) in front position for emphasis, we
invert the subject (s) and auxiliary (aux)/modal verb:
Never [AUX] have [S]we witnessed such cruel behavior by one child
to another. (or We have never witnessed …)
Seldom does one hear a politician say ‘sorry’. (or One seldom hears
…)
Expressions beginning with not
We also invert the subject and verb after not + a prepositional
phrase or a clause in initial position:
Not for a moment did I think I would be offered the job, so I was
amazed when I got it.
Not till I got home did I realize my wallet was missing.
Here and there
Inversion can happen after here, and after there when it is as an
adverb of place. After here and there, we can use a main verb without an
auxiliary verb or modal verb:
Here comes the bus!
Here’s your coffee.
I opened the door and there stood Michael, all covered in mud.
She looked out and there was Pamela, walking along arm in arm with
Goldie.
Summarizing
In short
In brief
In summary
To summarize
In a nutshell
To conclude
In conclusion
We normally use these words at the beginning of the sentence to
give a summary of what we have said or written. In composition and essay
writing we use all the above to conclude .
Sequencing
ideas
The former, … the latter
Firstly, secondly, finally
The first point is
Lastly
The following
The former and the latter are useful when you want to refer to one
of two points.
“Marketing and finance are both covered in the course. The former
is studied in the first term and the latter is studied in the final term.”
Firstly, … secondly, … finally (or lastly) are useful ways to list
ideas.
It’s rare to use “fourthly”, or “fifthly”. Instead, try the first
point, the second point, the third point and so on.
The following is a good way of starting a list.
“The following people have been chosen to go on the training
course: N Peters, C Jones and A Owen.”
Giving
a reason
Due to / due to the fact that
Owing to / owing to the fact that
Because
Because of
Since
As
Due to and owing to must be followed by a noun.
Examples
“Due to the rise in oil prices, the inflation rate rose by 1.25%.”
“Owing to the demand, we are unable to supply all items within 2
weeks.”
If you want to follow these words with a clause (a subject, verb
and object), you must follow the words with the fact that.
Examples
“Due to the fact that oil prices have risen, the inflation rate has
gone up by 1%25.”
“Owing to the fact that the workers have gone on strike, the
company has been unable to fulfill all its orders.”
Because / because of
Because of is followed by a noun.
Example
“Because of bad weather, the football match was postponed.”
Because can be used at the beginning or in the middle of a
sentence. For example, “Because it was raining, the match was postponed.”
Example
“We believe in incentive schemes, because we want our employees to
be more productive.”
Since / as
Since and as mean because.
Examples
“Since the company is expanding, we need to hire more staff.”
As the company is expanding, we need to hire more staff.”
Giving
a result
Therefore
So
Consequently
This means that
As a result
Therefore, so, consequently and as a result are all used in a
similar way.
Example
“The company are expanding. Therefore / So / Consequently / As a
result, they are taking on extra staff.”
So is more informal.
Contrasting
ideas
But
However
Although / even though
Despite / despite the fact that
In spite of / in spite of the fact that
Nevertheless
Nonetheless
While
Whereas
Unlike
In theory… in practice…
But is more informal than however. It is not normally used at the
beginning of a sentence.
“He works hard, but he doesn’t earn much.”
“He works hard. However, he doesn’t earn much.”
Although, despite and in spite of introduce an idea of contrast.
With these words, you must have two halves of a sentence.
Examples
“Although it was cold, she went out in shorts.”
“In spite of the cold, she went out in shorts.”
Despite and in spite of are used in the same way as due to and
owing to. They must be followed by a noun. If you want to follow them with a
noun and a verb, you must use the fact that.
Examples
“Despite the fact that the company was doing badly, they took on
extra employees.”
Nevertheless and nonetheless mean in spite of that or anyway.
“The sea was cold, but he went swimming nevertheless.” (In spite of
the fact that it was cold.)
“The company is doing well. Nonetheless, they aren’t going to
expand this year.”
While, whereas and unlike are used to show how two things are
different from each other.
Examples
“While my sister has blue eyes, mine are brown.”
“Taxes have gone up, whereas social security contributions have
gone down.”
Conditional
Conjunctions .
What Is a Conditional Conjunction?
Conditional conjunctions, in short, are used to describe a
condition. It's really that simple. Common examples of conditional conjunctions
include:
Unless since, if, because, once
By using these conjunctions, we're showing that one clause in a
sentence is dependent upon the other. We often use conditional
conjunctions to describe hypothetical situations or to explain why something
has happened is currently happening, or will happen.
Ask yourself, am I trying to explain that something will happen on
the condition that another thing will happen? If so, you'll probably use a
conditional conjunction to express that idea in a sentence.
Conditional Conjunction Example Sentences
Here are a few sample sentences that use conditional conjunctions
to join two ideas together.
If you brush your teeth every day, you probably won't get cavities.
Unless you really need me to, I can't take the time to reorganize
your desk today.
Since I'll be out of town, I'm looking for someone to feed my cat.
In each of these sample sentences, the structure indicates that the
second part of the sentence is a result of the first part of the sentence. Each
clause containing the conditional conjunction is a dependent clause. That
it, it cannot stand alone as a complete sentence. Meanwhile, the second half of
each sentence is an independent clause and can stand alone as a complete
thought.
In these examples that follow, the order is flipped such that the
dependent clause with the conditional conjunction is in the second part of the
sentence:
Be sure to explore all your options if you really want to go in
this direction.
You cannot walk to school unless you take a friend.
Let's skip the movie since we already know how it ends.
Conditional sentences consider imagined or uncertain situations and
the possible results of these situations. The most common types of conditional
sentences involve if:
[imagined situation]
If I get the job in Milan,
[result]
I’ll be pretty happy.
[outcome]
We’ll have the party in the garden
[imagined situation]
as long as it doesn’t rain. (or … if it doesn’t rain. or … on
condition that it doesn’t rain.)
Conditionals: other expressions (unless, should, as long as)
Conditional sentences
Conditional sentences consist of a conditional clause and a main
clause:
[conditional clause]
If a lot of people come,
[main clause]
we’ll have to get extra chairs.
[conditional clause]
Unless you book weeks in advance,
[main clause]
you won’t get a flight.
The verb in the conditional clause reflects the speaker’s point of
view on whether the imagined situation is likely or impossible:
If you win the next match, will you be in the semi-final? (present
simple + will indicates the speaker thinks winning the match is possible or
likely)
If I won a million pounds, I would give this job up tomorrow! (past
simple + would indicates the speaker thinks winning a million pounds is not
likely to happen)
If we had won the competition, we would have had a free trip to
Moscow. (past perfect + would have refers to an impossible condition – the
event did not happen)
Using Conditional Conjunctions
The best way to get a handle on conditional conjunctions is to
practice using them in sentences. Take a look at the following paragraph. Can
you spot all of the conditional conjunctions? The answers are listed below..
Since it's spring, there are many flowers in the garden. You can
pick one if you'd like! They smell so good because I take great care of them.
Unless you lack the capacity to smell, you'll probably enjoy the way the roses
smell. Once you fetch my scissors, I'll cut some for you to take home!
Conditional Sentences
Conditional sentences contain a conditional clause - also known as
the "if" clause - and a consequence. In fact, "if" is the
most common conditional conjunction used in conditional sentences.
"If" one thing happens, then another thing will happen. For example,
"If a garden is nurtured, then it will yield fruit."
Yet, not every conditional sentence needs to follow an "if +
then" formula. We could express the same sentiment above by saying,
"When your garden is nurtured, it will yield fruit" or "Your
garden will yield fruit when it is nurtured."
There are four different types of conditional sentences. Each one
expresses a varying level of probability that a particular situation is an
absolute requirement for another to occur. For more on that, enjoy this article
on Conditional Sentences.
Short, Staccato Sentences
The classic jingle "Conjunction Junction" was a
masterpiece. We can hear it now: "Conjunction junction, what's your
function? Hooking up words and phrases and clauses."
Without conjunctions, we'd be forced to write in short, staccato
sentences. Now, our world is open to the possibility of compound sentences and
truly unique, detailed thoughts. If you're planning to continue to explore the
wonderful world of conjunctions, enjoy this article on Teaching Conjunctions.
It'll help you lay it all out for your learners, one piece of the puzzle at a
time.
Order of clauses
Conditional clauses usually come before main clauses but they may
also come after them:
If you see Dora, will you give her a message? (conditional clause
first; a comma is normally used in writing)
I’ll go to Bristol tomorrow if the weather is good. (conditional
clause second; a comma is not normally used in writing)
Verb forms in the conditional clause
The verb in the conditional clause may be in the simple form or the
continuous form, depending on the meaning:
If you owe money, you must pay it back immediately. (simple)
If you’re feeling hungry, we can go and get something to eat.
(continuous)
If he had time, he always called in to see us. (simple)
If they were working, we always tried not to disturb them.
(continuous)
If
If is a conjunction.
If: conditions
We often use if to introduce possible or impossible situations or
conditions and their results. The situations or conditions can be real,
imagined or uncertain:
Examples
I usually make a sandwich to take to work if I have enough time.
(real)
If you don’t book now, you won’t get good tickets. (real)
They’d have got the job done quicker if they’d had more people
working on it. (imagined)
Will you bring my glasses down if you go upstairs? (uncertain)
Conditionals:
if
How
to use ‘if’ in conditional sentences
In English we have four ways to make conditional (if) sentences.
Here is how to make them...
1- ] 0 Conditional – is used for scientific facts or general
truths. ‘If’ can be substituted for ‘when’.
Example
‘If you boil water to 100°C,
it boils.’
‘When you boil water to 100°C, it boils.’
2- ] 1st Conditional – is used with ‘will/can + base verb’ for a
probable future result.
Examples
‘If you study hard, your
English will improve.’
'If I get enough sleep, I will feel better.’
3- ] 2nd Conditional – uses the ‘simple past’ with ‘modal + base
verb’ for imagined, impossible or unreal future situations.
Examples
‘If I won the lottery, I
would buy a plane.’
'If you met Johnny Depp, what would you ask him?’
4- ] 3rd Conditional – uses the ‘past perfect’ with ‘modal + have +
past participle’. It is usually used to express a past regret about something
which did not happen in the past.
Examples
‘If I had won the lottery, I
would have bought a plane.’
‘If I had been taller, I could have played in the NBA.’
If
possible, if necessary
We can sometimes leave words out after if to form fixed
expressions:
Examples
Check the temperature of your meat with a meat thermometer if
possible. (if it’s possible or if that’s possible)
Interest rates would have to rise if necessary to protect the
pound, Mr. John Smith, Shadow Chancellor, indicated yesterday on BBC TV’s Money
Program.
If: reporting questions
We use if to introduce reported yes-no questions and questions with
or.
Example
Compare
Do you like dogs? direct question
I asked if she liked dogs. indirect question
Are you leaving now or are you staying for a bit longer?[ direct
question ]
He asked if I was leaving now or staying for a bit longer. [
indirect question ]
If and politeness
In speaking, we often use if to introduce a polite request. If is
usually followed by modal verbs will, would, can or could when it is used to be
polite:
If you’ll just tell Julie that her next client is here. (Can you
tell Julie that …)
If you would like to follow me. (Please follow me.)
Even
if
We can use even if to mean if when talking about surprising or
extreme situations:
Example
You’re still going to be cold even if you put on two or three
jumpers.
Only
If .
We use only if to express a strong condition, often an order or
command, to mean ‘on the condition that’. It has an opposite meaning to ‘except
if’:
Examples
Payment will be made only if the work is completed on time.
Alright I’ll come but only if I can bring a friend with me.
We often separate only and if, using only in the main clause:
Examples
He’ll only take the job if they offer him more money.
We’ll only achieve our targets if everyone works together.
If
only
We use if only to express a strong wish that things could be
different. It means the same as I wish but is stronger. We use it to talk about
past, present and future unreal conditions.
We use if only + past verb forms to talk about a wish for the
present:
Examples
If only he knew the truth. (he doesn’t know the truth, but he
wishes he did)
Not: If only he knows the truth.
If only there was something she could do or say to help.
Not: If only there is something she could do or say to help.
We sometimes use were instead of was in more formal situations:
Example
If only she weren’t so tired. (If only she wasn’t so tired.)
To talk about a wish for the future or to show a contrast between
how things are and how we would like them to be, we use if only + would +
infinitive without to:
Examples
If only someone would buy the house.
If only they would talk to each other.
We use if only + past perfect to talk about a wish to change
something that has already happened:
Example
If only he had listened to what his friends had been telling him.
(He didn’t listen.)
If only Anna had been able to come. (Anna wasn’t able to come.)
If
so, if not
We use so or not after if when it is obvious what we are referring
to:
Example
[from a job advertisement]
Are you looking for part-time work? Do you want to work from home?
If so, read on. (if you are looking for part-time work or if you want to work
from home)
You should all have received your booklist for the course by now.
If not, please email the office. (if you haven’t received your booklist for the
course by now)
I’ll see you soon, definitely at the wedding, if not before. (if I
don’t see you before the wedding)
The
use of "if not"
You use if not in front of a word or phrase to indicate that your
statement does not apply to that word or phrase, but to something closely
related to it that you also mention.
If-not sentence examples
He wasn't entirely certain the Black God could be trusted, if not
for Bianca being in danger. ...
She wouldn't have survived, if not for you, Gabe. ...
Throat, if not throat, stomach. ...
Alex was civil to Mr. Danny , if not friendly. ...
The women --even if not beautiful --were dressed beautifully.
(1) We went out although, if
not because, it was raining.
(2) We went out because, if not although, it was raining.
(3) We decided to stay home because, if not although, it was
raining.
For (3), I chose "decided to stay" instead of just
"stayed home" (or for that matter, could-be-confusing "didn't go
out.")
The three sentences seem all wrong, The first, as you state, might
be acceptable. It seems to mean that, while most people would not go out in the
rain, we did, just because we like doing that. Is that what you mean?
A simpler to understand way to state this would be something like
this:
Although it was raining, we went out because we like going out in
the rain.
I assume that sentence 2) is supposed to mean the same, but it
seems even more awkward.
Sentence 3) is almost not decipherable. Do you mean:
Usually we like to go out in the rain, but yesterday we decided to
stay home because of the rain.
'If not' is used in sentences like these:
I'll pick you up at seven, if not earlier.
Stir in the liquid slowly; if not, the mixture will not thicken.
The pilot knew exactly what to do. If not, the plane would have
crashed.
And, as you know, 'if....not' is used in conditional sentences:
If he had not turned off the water, the house would have been
flooded.
If you do not pay your taxes by April 17, you will be fined by the
government.
We will go out if it does not rain.
Your original sentences, with 'although' and 'because' don't work
on a regular basis. You might use the construction of the first sentence if you
are a newscaster, for example, saying something in rather formal (and somewhat
twisted) language:
The demonstrators suddenly stopped, although, if not because, the
hated president appeared on the balcony.
'I will pick you up at seven, if not earlier' means only that I may
pick you up earlier than seven, but certainly no later than seven.'
In other words, at seven or before seven. Seven would be the
latest.
The speaker seems to be in a hurry to go.
If later than seven, the speaker might say:
I'm running late. I can't get there before seven, if not later.
Please be ready. We'll have to take the back roads to avoid the traffic on the
highway, and even then, we might miss the plane.
This speaker is in a hurry, too.
Some say that (8) can be ambiguous in written English, but
intonation helps us disambiguate the sentence, although there seems to be no
agreement on which intonation (falling or rising) corresponds to which reading
(inclusive or exclusive).
(8) He was a little tipsy, if not drunk.
Another paraphrase of (4) will be this:
(9) I will pick you up at seven, and [perhaps, possibly, probably]
earlier.
This suggests that "if not" in the sense of the inclusive
reading refers to possibility: I may or may not pick you up at seven.
If we carry this argument a step further, we also could say that by
"if not" the speaker of (4) may implicate that they may not pick you
up at seven. Those who think along this line assume the inclusive reading
expresses a kind of concession, even going so far as to say the inclusive
reading virtually means the same as the exclusive one.
Unless means the same as if...not. Like if,
unless is followed by a present tense, a past tense, or a past perfect tense
(never by a conditional). Unless is used instead of if...not in conditional
sentences of all types. The order of the clauses doesn't matter with sentences
using unless.
As you probably already know, “if” is conditional. It is used to
describe a possible situation, and what would happen under the conditions of
that situation. “Unless” is also conditional, but it is effectively “if” with
an extra exclusion or negative qualifier added. Unless basically means “except
if” or “if… not”.
Conditionals:
other expressions (unless, should, as long as)
Unless
What do you mean by Unless?
except on the condition that : under any other circumstance than. 2
: without the accompanying circumstance or condition that : but that : but.
unless.
How do you use unless?
Use unless with present tenses when talking about the future.
Present. You will damage your health unless you stop smoking. = you
will damage your health if you do not stop smoking.
Past. Unless she was working late, she would be here. ...
Past Perfect. I wouldn't have taken Paul unless his car hadn't
broken down.
Conditional clauses can begin with unless. Unless means something
similar to ‘if … not’ or ‘except if’.
The verb forms in the examples are similar to sentences with if: we use the
present simple in the unless-clause and shall, should, will, would, can, could,
may or might in the main clause:
Examples
Unless I phone you, you can assume the train’s on time. (If I do
not phone you /except if I phone you, you can assume the train is on time.)
We’ll have to cancel the show unless we sell more tickets at the
last minute. (We’ll have to cancel the show if we do not sell more
tickets/except if we sell more tickets at the last minute.)
I won't pay if you don't provide the goods immediately. I won't pay
unless you provide the goods immediately.
If you don't study diligently, you'll never understand
trigonometry. Unless you study diligently, you'll never understand
trigonometry.
Warning:
We don’t use unless for impossible conditions:
Example
If the government had not raised food prices, there would not have
been so many protests.
Not: Unless the government had raised food prices …
Warning:
We don’t use unless and if together:
Example
We’ll go to the coast tomorrow unless it rains.
Not: We’ll go to the coast tomorrow unless if it rains.
What is the difference between if not and unless?
As you probably already know, “if” is conditional. It is used to
describe a possible situation, and what would happen under the conditions of
that situation. “Unless” is also conditional, but it is effectively “if” with
an extra exclusion or negative qualifier added. Unless basically means “except
if” or “if… not”.
Should
you (Should with inversion)
In formal situations, we can use should + subject (s) + verb (v)
instead of if:
Examples
Should you wish to cancel your order, please contact our customer
service department on 02317 6658932. (or If you should wish to cancel your
order …)
Should your child become anxious or nervous about any activity, it
is a good idea to inform the team-leader. (or If your child should become …)
Had
you (Had with inversion)
In formal situations, we can use had + subject + verb instead of if
in third conditional sentences:
Example
Had I known you were waiting outside, I would have invited you to
come in. (If I had known you were waiting outside …)
Had Margaret realized she would be travelling alone, she would
never have agreed to go.
If +
were to
In formal situations, we can use if + were to when we talk about
things that might happen but which we think are unlikely:
Example
If the Prime Minister were to resign, there would have to be a
general election within 30 days.
In even more formal styles, we use were + subject-verb inversion +
to-infinitive:
Were [V] we[S] to give up the fight now, it would mean the end of
democracy in our country. (If we gave up the fight now …)[to -INF]
Were [V] the economy [S] to
slow down too quickly, there would be major problems. (If the economy slowed
down too quickly …)[to -INF]
As
long as, so long as, providing, etc.
Sometimes we need to impose specific conditions or set limits on a
situation. In these cases, conditional clauses can begin with phrases such as ,
as long as, so long as, only if, on condition that, providing (that), provided
(that).
As long as is more common in speaking; so long as and on condition
that are more formal and more common in writing:
Examples
[to a group of children]
You can play in the living room as long as you don’t make a mess.
So long as a tiger stands still, it is invisible in the jungle.
The bank lent the company 100,000 pounds on condition that
they repaid the money within six months.
Providing (that) is more common in speaking; provided (that) is more formal
and more common in written language:
Examples
[talking about rail travel in the UK]
You can get a senior citizen’s reduction providing you’ve got a
railcard.
They may do whatever they like provided that it is within the law.
Or
and otherwise
We often use or and otherwise with conditional meanings:
Examples
You’ve got to start studying, or you’ll fail all those exams. (If
you don’t start studying, you will fail the exams.)
[talking about sending a package by mail]
We’d better send it express, otherwise it’ll take days. (If we do
not send it express, it will take days.)
Supposing
Supposing may be used with a conditional meaning. It can be used in
first, second or third conditional sentences. The speaker invites the listener
to imagine a situation:
Examples
Supposing I don’t arrive till after midnight, will the guest-house
still be open? (Imagine if I don’t arrive till after midnight …)
Supposing you lost your passport, you’d have to go to the embassy,
wouldn’t you?
Supposing he hadn’t recognized us – he might never have spoken to
us.
In
Case & In case (of)
In case is a conjunction or adverb. In case of is a preposition.
We use in case to talk about things we should do in order to be
prepared for possible future situations:
Examples
Shall I keep some chicken salad for your brother in case he’s
hungry when he gets here? (conjunction)
In case I forget later, here are the keys to the garage.
(conjunction)
She knows she’s passed the oral exam, but she doesn’t want to say
anything just in case. (adverb)
We don’t use in case to mean ‘if’.
Examples
Compare
Let’s take our swimming costumes in case there’s a pool at the
hotel.
We don’t know if there is a pool there.
Let’s take our swimming costumes if there’s a pool in the hotel.
We will wait until we know about the pool before we decide.
I’ll take cash in case we need it on the ferry. (we don’t know if
we will need cash on the ferry)
In case of
We use in case of + noun to mean ‘if and when something happens’:
[notice in a lift]
In case of breakdown, please press the alarm button and call this
number. (if and when the lift breaks down, …)
Wish
+ to-infinitive
When we use wish followed by a verb in the to-infinitive form, wish
means the same as want, but it is more formal. We do not normally use wish in
the continuous form when we use it with a to-infinitive:
Example
I wish to speak to Mr. Hennessy, please.
Not: I’m wishing to speak to …
We don’t use a that-clause after wish when it is a more formal
version of want:
Example
I wish to visit you in the summer, if possible.
Not: I wish (that) I visit you in the summer …
We can use an object (underlined), before the to-infinitive:
Example
I did not wish my family to know about Sara, so I told them
nothing.
When we use an object after wish, we must also use a verb in the
to-infinitive form. Alternatively, we can say want or (more politely) would
like:
Example
We wish to have a table near the window, please. (or We would like
a table near the window, please.)
Not: We wish a table near the window …
Wish
+ indirect object + direct object
We use wish with two objects, an indirect object + a direct object
(underlined), for expressions of good wishes and hopes that good things will
happen to people:
(io = indirect object; do = direct object)
I wish [IO] you[DO] success in your new job.
I’ve got my driving test tomorrow. Wish [IO] me [DO] luck!
We wish [IO] you [DO] a long and happy life together.
Wish
+ that-clause
We use wish with a that-clause when we regret or are sorry that
things are not different. We imagine a different past or present:
Example
I just wish that everything could be as it used to be.
In informal situations, we usually omit that:
Examples
I wish I had his mobile phone number; we could tell him the good
news. (I don’t have his mobile phone number; it would be good if I had it.)
I wish you hadn’t told me how the film ends. You’ve spoilt it for
me. (You told me how the film ends; it would have been better if you had not
told me.)
Wish
+ verb forms in the that-clause
The verb forms we use in that-clauses after wish are similar to the
verb forms in conditional clauses after if. We use a past verb form for present
and future meanings.
Compare if / wish
Examples
It would be good if we had a bigger car.
I wish we had a bigger car.
It would be good if I knew how to use this DVD player.
I wish I knew how to use this DVD player.
When we wish something about the past, we use the past perfect after
wish:
Examples
I wish I had known Charlie was coming. I would have invited Jane.
(I didn’t know it and did not invite Jane.)
I wish I hadn’t said that. I can see I’ve upset you. Sorry. (I did
say it; it would have been better if I had not said it.)
Wish
+ would
We can use wish + would if we are annoyed about something that is
or is not happening, or about something that will or will not happen:
Examples
I wish you’d stop making so much noise! (You are making a noise; it
would be better if you didn’t.)
I wish you wouldn’t come through the kitchen with your dirty boots
on. (You do come through the kitchen; it would be better if you didn’t.)
In informal situations, we can use wish in the continuous form like
this:
Example
He’s embarrassing everyone. I’m just wishing he would go away!
Warning:
We use hope, not wish, when we want something to happen in the
future or when we want something to have happened in the past:
Example
I hope the weather’s fine tomorrow.
Not: I wish the weather’s fine tomorrow.
Example
I hope they didn’t miss their flight.
Not: I wish they didn’t miss their flight.
Complete the following sentences using a correct phrase with SO or
NEITHER.
1- ]I'm not a very energetic person and----------------- my
brother.
2- ]We enjoy playing volleyball and --------------- Margie,
3- ]He didn't pay any attention to his demands and -------------
we.
4- ]She has never gone been in London and ------------- her sister.
5- ]Tomorrow they are going to the new mall in our neighborhood and
----------- am I.
6- ]When we arrived, Brian hadn't finished his dinner yet and ------------------
his parents.
7- ] By next year , I'll have finished school and
----------------------- you.
8- ] I have never been abroad and-------------- my sister.
9- ]The pizza was burnt and ------------------- the garlic bread.
10- ]I have never accepted a bribe form anyone and -----------------
my partner.
[ even though, however , in order to , no sooner , not only , not only , only
if , under no circumstances ]
Choose the correct connecting
phrase from the list above !
1- ] -----------------are larger cars more expensive, but they also
cost a lot to maintain.
2- ] Milk from our factory is tested regularly---------------- give
our customers the best possible quality.
3- ] -----------------had we
moved in than our neighbors started complaining about the dog.
4- ]All countries voted in favor of the plan, --------------- France.
5- ]------------------------we
knew who the murderer was, we enjoyed most of the film.
6- ]---------------------------- must this door be left open.
7- ]I should punish you for disobeying, -----------------------, I
am prepared to give you another chance.
8- ] --------------------- we book today will we get a 50%
discount.
Connectives - Choose the correct phrase !
1- ]The train was delayed ----------------bad weather.
[ resulting - in view of - on account of – because ]
2- ] The event was cancelled --------------- the fact that not many
tickets were sold.
[ due to – because – so – therefore ]
3- ] I felt stressed ------------- I'd been overworked recently.
[ that's why - as a result – as - therefore ]
4- ] John went to the acupuncturist ---------------- his bad back.
[ consequently- because of - due to - since ]
5- ] Sonia had a bad stomachache and --------------------- I
recommended seeing the doctor.
[ since – therefore – as a result – given that ]
6- ] -----------------the teacher's good reputation the yoga classes were always crowded.
[ in view of – due to – because of – consequently ]
7- ] -----------------------the fact that homeopathy can be very
effective for some illnesses it has become increasingly popular.
[ since – in view of – therefore – given that ]
8- ] It's amazing I can walk -------------------------- an hour ago I
couldn't move.
[ since – as a result of – given that – therefore ]
9- ] My headache has disappeared----------------- the massage.
[ because of – therefore –
given to – because ]
10- ] The company was doing badly and --------------------- it closed.
[ because of – on account of – seeing as – consequently ]
11- ]------------------------- it is your
money, you can do what you like with it.
[ consequently – therefore – since – resulting ]
12- ] My mother wanted to keep her brain active, -----------------------
she took up a hobby.
[ seeing that – therefore – because – owing to ]
Use one of the words or phrases from the box to complete the
sentences .
[ after – as soon as - because – by the time – just as - once - when
– while ]
1- ] I'll call you--------------------- I get home.
2- ] We decided to go for a walk ------------------------ we had
had lunch.
3- ] I was washing my hair -------------------- the phone rang.
4- ]I took a taxi --------------------- it was raining.
5- ] I was preparing dinner---------------- John was washing the
car.
6- ] I got to the bus stop ------------------------ the bus
arrived.
7- ] -------------- he read the instructions he knew how to operate
the DVD-recorder.
8- ]You can have the newspaper--------------------- I've finished
reading it.
9- ]They had repaired the roof ---------------------- John got
back.
10- ] All flights were cancelled -------------------------- of the
fog.
Link the ideas and expressions with the correct linking words!
1- ] [ So that – In spite of –In order to – Even though ] ----------------save
water, you should take a shower [ instead of – because of – in order to –
although ]---------------- a bath.
2- ] building new highways for cars and trucks, the government
should spend more on public transport.
3- ]We don't take global warming seriously enough,-------------------
rising ocean levels and floods.
4- ]Where homes near the sea have been destroyed ---------------------
a flood , the owner's shouldn't be allowed to rebuild it in the same place.
5- ] More money should be spent on alternative energy -----------------
we don't need to burn so much coal and oil.
6- ] Private cars should be banned from cities because people are
developing serious health problems ----------------------- air pollution from
automobiles.
7- ] --------------- it would cost me more to drive my car , I
would be happy if they raised gasoline taxes in order to cut down on gas
consumption.
8- ] --------------------- environmental problems are overwhelming
, there is still hope.
9- ] Some people water their lawns daily--------------------
drought warnings.
10- ] Climates are changing ------------------------ global
warming.
11- ] Recycle garbage ------------------------ it doesn't end up in
a landfill.
12- ] I buy rechargeable batteries -------------------------- the
higher costs.
Choose the correct linking words !
1- ] He went to work [ though – despite – whenever – as if ] being ill.
2- ] Jake couldn't sleep [ yet – nevertheless – although – when ]
he was very tired.
3- ] Brian is good at math [because – in spite of – in case –
whereas ] his sister is good at science.
4- ] She talks [ however – although – in case – as if ] she knows everything.
5- ] It was very late. [ As a result – Nevertheless- Though – While
] the guests didn't leave.
6- ] Lisa went shopping [ while – as if – when – but ] she didn't buy anything.
7- ] They managed to make a meal [ yet – although – despite – in case
] there wasn't much food in the fridge.
8- ] [However – In spite of –
as soon as – Although ] he fell asleep the phone rang.
9- ] You can keep those CDs [ however – as long as – still – when ]
you like.
10- ] I'll write to you [ as soon as – despite – wherever – while ]
I have the results.
11- ] They bought him a gift [ during – while – since – when ] it was his birthday.
12- ] [ During – While - Although
– In spite of ] the heavy snow we managed to get back to the office.
13- ] The man fell off the ladder. [ In case – However – As a
result – Just ], he wasn't hurt.
14- ] I took some paper and a pen [ so that – despite – if so – therefore ] I could make some notes .
Grammar
Quiz: Connectives
Choose the correct answer.
Q1 - I was very happy ____ all my old friends were living there.
that
with
which
Q2 - I didn't feel lonely ____ I had a lot of friends who could
help me.
that
since
Q3 - They were very friendly ____ I felt at home.
and
but
Q4 - ____ I felt unhappy, but I came to like it.
At first
First
Firstly
Q5 - ____ I needed it, there was always someone willing to help.
Whether
If
Either could be used here.
Q6 - ____ this, I always felt I would succeed.
Beside
Besides
Either could be used here.
Q7 - Living there has many advantages, ____ there are problems.
however
though
Either could be used here.
Q8 - It was great ____ it made me feel at home.
because of
since
Q9 - They spend ages trying to prove themselves ____ getting
accepted.
as
before
since
Q10 - ____ she saw it, she had assumed it was an explosion.
While
When
Either could be used here.
Conjunctions, connecting words of time in English sentences –
Exercise
1- ] On Sundays I often stay in bed [ before – until ] 10 o'clock.
2- ] [ After – While ] John
has done his homework, he may play his favorite computer game.
3- ] We were on our way to Cairo [ when – while ] our car broke down.
4- ] [ After – Before ] I go
to school, I take my little brother to preschool.
5- ] I'll phone you [ until – when ] I'm there.
6- ] It's still two days [ after
- before ] our son flies back to Chicago.
7- ] [ After – Until ] I finished school, I went to New Zealand.
8- ] We had left the beach [ before – until ] the rain started.
9- ] We stayed in our house [ before – until ] the rain stopped.
10- ] [ When – While ] he heard about the accident he was shocked.
Wish
Exercise 1
I wish things were different! Make sentences using 'wish' + past
simple about the things I don't like. You can put in 'that' if you want, or
leave it out.
1) I don't have a car.------------------------------------
2) I can't play the piano.-----------------------------------
3) I'm at work.----------------------------------
4) It's winter.----------------------------
5) I'm ill.--------------------------------------
6) I don't have new shoes.----------------------------------------
7) I can't afford to go on holiday.----------------------------------
8) I don't have time to read lots of books.-------------------------------------
9) I can't drive.-------------------------------------------
1Exercise 2 - I wish ...
Complete the sentences. Use the present perfect form of the verbs
in brackets.
Use contractions where possible.
1- ] I wish we (not have) a test today.
2- ] I wish these exercises (not be) so difficult.
3- ] I wish we (live) near the beach.
4- ] Do you ever wish you (can travel) more?
5- ] I wish I (be) better at math.
6- ]I wish we (not have to)
wear a school uniform.
7- ] Sometimes I wish I (can fly).
8- ] I wish we (can go) to Disney World.
If
only / I wish ...
Decide whether these statements express a "wish" or a
"regret":
I wish I could fly.
If only she had seen the doctor earlier. He could have saved her.
If only I traveled to New York.
I wish I were a doctor.
Write the correct answer:
1- ]Alice didn't get a good grade. She wishes she (work)
harder.
2- ]Tom likes football very much. He wishes he (become) a professional football player.
3- ] He was running very fast when he had a heart attack. If only
he (not/run)
so fast.
4- ] She's keen on computers. She wishes she (study) computer science next school year.
5- ]I am sorry I don’t know how to use the computer. If only I
(know) how to use it.
6- ]I stayed late at work and missed the last bus. I wish I (stay) at work late
Answers
I wish I could fly. Wish
If only she had seen the doctor earlier. He could have saved her.
Regret
If only I traveled to New York. Wish
I wish I were a doctor. Wish
Choose the correct answer:
Alice didn't get a good grade. She wishes she (work) had worked
harder
Tom likes football very much. He wishes he (become) became a
professional football player.
He was running very fast when he had a heart attack. If only he
(not/run) hadn't run so fast.
She's keen on computers. She wishes she (study) studied computer
science next school year.
I am sorry I don’t know how to use the computer. If only I knew how to use it.
I stayed late at work and missed the last bus. I wish I had not stayed at work late.
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