22- ] Grammar American & British
Sentences
And Clauses .
What is a sentence?
In
grammar, a sentence is the basic grammatical unit. It contains a group of words
and expresses a complete thought. A sentence consists of a subject and a
predicate. For example in the sentence "Bill writes good poems" Bill
is the subject of the sentence and writes good poems is the predicate.
A sentence is a grammatical unit made up of one or more words (Go!
is a sentence, as is The cat sat on the mat.). Sentences begin with a capital
letter and end with a full stop, a question mark or an exclamation point.
A sentence is a group of words that makes complete sense, contains
a main verb, and begins with a capital letter.
Sentences are used:
to make statements:
I took some money out of the bank.
The shop stays open until 9 p.m.
to ask questions or make requests:
Can I help you?
Could you open the door?
to give orders:
Stop arguing!
Come here at once!
to express exclamations:
You’re driving too fast!
It’s so cold!
Sentence or not?
The examples in the section above all show well-formed sentences.
None of the following examples are proper sentences:
‘Ham and eggs. And onions.’
Too much information!
‘Not at all, Joe.’
which Rob shook
if it ever became public
The first three are not sentences because they do not contain a
verb: they would be acceptable in informal speaking and writing, because they
are easy to understand, but it's not a good idea to use such constructions in
formal situations.
The last two are not proper sentences because they do not contain a
main verb or make sense on their own (they are in fact subordinate clauses).
They need an additional clause so as to form a complete sentence and be
understood.
What Are The Different Types Of Sentences?
Simple sentence
A simple sentence normally contains one statement (known as a main
clause). For example:
The train should be here soon.
His father worked as a journalist.
Compound sentence
A compound sentence contains two or more clauses of equal status
(or main clauses), which are normally joined by a conjunction such as and or
but. For example:
Joe became bored with teaching and he looked for a new career.
[main clause] [conjunction] [main clause]
Boxers can be very friendly
dogs but they need to be trained.
[main clause] [conjunction] [main clause]
Complex sentence
A complex sentence is also made up of clauses, but in this case the
clauses are not equally balanced. They contain a main clause and one or more subordinate
clauses. For example:
The story would make headlines if
it ever became public.
[main clause] [subordinate
clause]
He took up the project again as
soon as he felt well enough.
[main clause] [subordinate
clause]
What Are The Different Types Of Sentences?
Types
Of Sentences
The 4 Types of Sentence Structure
A Simple Sentence
What is a simple sentence?
A simple sentence has a subject and ONLY ONE verb:
The girl sprinted after the tiger.
The cat purred.
A
simple sentence
has only one clause, and one independent variable. The cat is sleeping.
A simple sentence is one with only one independent clause and no
dependent clauses.
Simple sentence
A simple sentence normally contains one statement (known as a main
clause). For example:
The train should be here soon.
His father worked as a journalist.
Example:
David drives carefully to work in the morning.
Compound Sentence
A compound sentence is one with two independent clauses joined by a
coordinating conjunction (for, but, and, nor, or, yet, so)
punctuation, or both. The dog is happy, but the cat is sad.
A compound sentence contains two or more clauses of equal status
(or main clauses), which are normally joined by a conjunction such as and or
but.
For example:
Joe became bored with teaching and he looked for a new career.
[main clause] [conjunction] [main clause]
Boxers can be very friendly
dogs but they need to be trained.
[main clause] [conjunction] [main clause]
Example:
I was born in the United States, yet I consider myself Canadian.
How do you know if a sentence is a compound?
If two clauses are connected with a coordinating conjunction, it's
a compound sentence.
What is simple compound?
A simple sentence contains one independent clause. A compound
sentence contains more than one! Put another way: a simple sentence contains a
subject and a predicate, but a compound sentence contains more than one subject
and more than one predicate.
What is a compound sentence?
A compound sentence is formed when you join two main clauses with a
connective. In a compound sentence the clauses are linked by coordinating
conjunctions / connectives (and, but, so, or).
I like bananas and I like grapes.
Zoe can be rude at times but she is a nice girl.
A compound sentence is a sentence with more than one subject or
predicate.
A compound sentence is a sentence that has at least two independent
clauses joined by a comma, semicolon or conjunction. An independent clause is a
clause that has a subject and verb and forms a complete thought. An example of
a compound sentence is, 'This house is too expensive, and that house is too
small.
Compound Sentence Definition
A compound sentence is a sentence that has two or more independent
clauses that express related ideas. To make a compound sentence, the two
independent clauses are usually connected using a semicolon or a coordinating
conjunction (words like for, and, but, yet, so, nor, or).
Compound Sentence Examples
A compound sentence has at least two independent clauses that have
related ideas. The independent clauses can be joined by a coordinating
conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) or by a semicolon, as you can see
in the compound sentence examples below.
In either case, each half of the sentence must be able to stand on
its own as a complete sentence. That means each half needs a subject and a
verb. For example:
I want the sporty red car, but I will lease the practical blue one.
In the sentence above, the subjects are italicized and the verbs
are in bold. The first half is a complete sentence because it contains the
subject "I" and the verb "want." The second half that comes
after the comma and coordinating conjunction is also a complete sentence, with
the subject "I" and the verb "will lease."
Compound Sentence Examples
Let’s look at an example of a compound sentence and break down its
elements:
Bill went to New York City, but David travelled to Philadelphia.
As you can see, the sentence is composed of two independent clauses
“Bill went to New York City” and “David travelled to Philadelphia”, which are
connected by the coordinating conjunction “but”.
We are tired, yet it’s too early to go to bed.
I think you would be happy here, but you would be happy at home,
too.
Dad is cranky this morning; he hasn’t had his coffee yet.
The lieutenant stood silently, for he was ever prepared for battle.
Jenny is very adept at science, and she will go to a top university
to study biology.
You can take that scone with the blueberries, or you can have the
one over there.
My knees are stiff; old age is catching up with me.
Mary doesn't like cartoons because they are loud, so she doesn't
watch them.
I have often wanted to drown my troubles, but I can't get my wife
to go swimming.
What are the three types of compound sentence?
Three methods of forming compound sentences
There are three ways of joining independent clauses into a compound
sentence: with a coordinating conjunction (one of the fan boys); with a
semicolon; or. with a semicolon and a transitional expression.
Compound Sentences with Coordinating Conjunctions
The use of a coordinating conjunction is one of the main ways to
link the independent clauses of a compound sentence. There are seven
coordinating conjunctions, which can be remembered by the mnemonic FANBOYS –
for, and, nor, but, or, yet and so.
Coordinating conjunctions play an important role in a compound
sentence because they link the two independent clauses and help writing flow
better.
Consider these examples:
They are frightened. They have resolved to continue their journey.
Taking those two sentences and using the coordinating conjunction
yet to form a compound sentence helps the reader better understand the meaning
of the two clauses and the relationship between them, not to mention helping
the sentence flow a bit more smoothly.
They are frightened, yet they have resolved to continue their
journey.
But could also be used to connect the two clauses, help the reader
and create a smoother sentence.
They are frightened, but they have resolved to continue their
journey.
As you've seen above, many compound sentences are made using
coordinating conjunctions. In this case, the sentence must contain a comma
before the conjunction for correct punctuation.
For example:
She did not cheat on the test, for it was the wrong thing to do.
I really need to go to work, but I am too sick to drive.
I am counting my calories, yet I really want dessert.
He ran out of money, so he had to stop playing poker.
They got there early, and they got really good seats.
They had no ice cream left at home, nor did they have money to go
to the store.
Everyone was busy, so I went to the movie alone.
I thought the promotion was mine, but my attendance wasn't good
enough.
Should we start class now, or wait for everyone to get here?
It was getting dark, and we weren't near the cabin yet.
Cats are good pets, for they are clean and are not noisy.
We have never been to Asia, nor have we visited Africa.
He didn't want to go to the dentist, yet he went anyway.
Compound Sentences with a Semicolon
Like a coordinating conjunction, a semicolon is used to link two
independent clauses that are related. The use of semicolons is often debated as
a matter of style in literature and journalism but using them correctly can
make your writing look more accomplished and elegant.Look at this example:
My dog Snickers is beautiful; he has gorgeous eyes and looks like
he is always smiling.
Subtly, the semicolon does a lot of work in this sentence. Without
stating it overtly, the semicolon tells the reader that there is a link between
the dog’s beauty and the parts of its face being described in the second
clause. We could rewrite the sentence this way:
My dog Snickers is beautiful, and he has gorgeous eyes and looks
like he is always smiling.
The second example is a perfectly viable compound sentence, and it
has almost the same meaning as the first. Yet, one would argue that the
semicolon in the first example does a better job of linking the clauses
together and creating a smoother flow. It’s like saying the gorgeous eyes and
smiling face are part of the dog’s beauty, whereas those qualities in the second
example may or may not be the reason the dog is considered beautiful.
It's also possible to join compound sentences simply by combining
two complete sentences into one long sentence without any additional words. In
this case, you must use a semicolon to join your two independent clauses. For
example:
Joe made the sugar cookies; Susan decorated them.
While this is grammatically correct, it's also possible to smooth
the transition from one clause to the other with conjunctive adverbs such as
however, besides, therefore and meanwhile. To use these properly, place them
after the semicolon and add a comma after the conjunctive adverb.
For example:
It was a difficult assignment; however, Kelly was up to the
challenge.
Observe additional compound sentence examples joined by semicolons
below:
The sky is clear; the stars are twinkling.
The waves were crashing on the shore; it was a lovely sight.
There were white-out conditions in the town; therefore, the roads
were impassable.
Check back tomorrow; I will see if the book has arrived.
He said he was not there yesterday; many people saw him there.
I am happy to take your donation; any amount will be greatly
appreciated.
She only paints with bold colors; indeed, she does not like pastels
at all.
She works two jobs to make ends meet; at least, that was her reason
for not having time to join us.
Malls are great places to shop; I can find everything I need under
one roof.
Italy is my favorite country; I plan to spend two weeks there next
year.
He turned in the research paper on Friday; he would have not passed
the class otherwise.
You need to pack the appropriate things for camping; for example, a
sleeping bag will keep you warm.
I have paid my dues; as a result, I expect to receive all the
privileges listed in the bylaws.
Compound Sentences in Quotes
Compound sentences are quite common in both speech and writing.
Here are examples of compound sentences used by famous public figures:
"Any jackass can kick down a barn, but it takes a good
carpenter to build one." - Lyndon B. Johnson
"The drought had lasted now for 10 million years, and the
reign of the terrible lizards had long since ended." - Arthur C. Clarke,
2001: A Space Odyssey
"Government does not solve problems; it subsidizes them."
- Ronald Reagan
"I used to be snow white, but I drifted." - Mae West
"I have often wanted to drown my troubles, but I can't get my
wife to go swimming." - Jimmy Carter
"Tell the truth, work hard, and come to dinner on time."
- Gerald R. Ford
"I have opinions of my own, strong opinions, but I don't
always agree with them." - George H. W. Bush
"You can put wings on a pig, but you don't make it an
eagle." - Bill Clinton
“I fear not the man who has
practiced 10,000 kicks once, but I fear the man who has practiced one kick
10,000 times.” Bruce Lee
“God gave us the gift of life; it is up to us to give ourselves the
gift of living well.” Voltaire
“My life didn’t please me, so I created my life.” Coco Chanel
“Never will the world know all it owes to them, nor all they have
suffered to enrich us.” Marcel Proust
“I give myself very good advice, but I very seldom follow it.”
Alice (Walt Disney’s Alice in Wonderland)
Don't Forget the Punctuation
Now that you have seen different examples of compound sentences,
you can confidently add them to your writing. One advantage of compound
sentences is that you can build more detail into your writing. Just be careful
to follow the punctuation rules described above and avoid run-on sentences.
Complex Sentence
Complex Sentence Examples & Definition
What Is a Complex Sentence?
A complex sentence is a sentence that contains one independent and
at least one dependent clause (sometimes called a subordinate clause). An
independent clause is a phrase that would make sense if it were a sentence on
its own, whereas a dependent clause will not form a sentence on its own. When
these two types of clauses appear in a sentence, we create a complex sentence.
Complex Sentence Definition
The definition of a complex sentence is a sentence that contains
one independent clause and at least one dependent clause. Whether I succeed or
fail, I will give it my best shot. (complex)
Consider this example:
I like to eat the candy before I watch a movie.
“I like to eat the candy” is an independent clause as it would make
a complete sentence on its own.
“Before I watch a movie” is a dependent clause, as it doesn’t make
a complete sentence on its own. It is ‘dependent’ on the first clause for the
phrase to make sense.
A complex sentence has one independent clause and at least one
dependent clause. This means that the clauses are not equal, they use a
coordinating conjunction that changes the rank of one or more of the clauses to
make it less equal. For example; My Dad laughed when I told a joke.
A complex sentence is one with an independent clause and at least
one dependent clause.
A complex sentence
has one clause with a relative clause. The dog, which is eating the bone, is
happy.
A complex sentence is also made up of clauses, but in this case the
clauses are not equally balanced. They contain a main clause and one or more
subordinate clauses. For example:
The story would make headlines if
it ever became public.
[main clause] [subordinate
clause]
He took up the project again as
soon as he felt well enough.
[main clause] [subordinate
clause]
Example:
Whenever he was lonely, Lance called his mother.
A complex sentence is, of course, just one type of sentence we can
use in writing.
What is complex sentences with examples?
Examples of Complex Sentences
In the examples of complex sentences below, the dependent clause
comes first. Notice that the dependent clause begins with a subordinating
conjunction (words like since, because, while) and that the clauses are
separated by a comma:
Because he was late again, he would be docked a day’s pay.
While I am a passionate basketball fan, I prefer football.
Although she was considered smart, she failed all her exams.
Whenever it rains, I like to wear my blue coat.
In the complex sentence examples shown below, the independent
clause comes first. Notice that in most examples there is no separation of the
clauses by a comma, which is the general rule in complex sentences starting
with an independent clause. However, the last example has a comma as it is an
example of an extreme contrast. This extreme contrast refers to the clauses
expressing ideas that are almost opposite in meaning or that must be heavily
emphasized.
Having a party is a bad idea because the neighbors will complain.
I am extremely happy since I retired.
The dog jumped on his lap while he was eating.
Annie was still crying, although she had been happy about the news.
Common Complex Sentence Examples
As we have seen with the previous examples, the structure for a
complex sentence essentially looks like this:
Dependent Clause + Independent Clause (comma splits the clause)
Independent Clause + Dependent Clause (comma usually does not split
the clause)
So, using that structure we can easily form examples of complex
sentences:
Despite her advancing years, Eliza was still the best player on the
team.
Eliza was still the best player on the team despite her advancing
years.
Since Hannah got here, she’s been nothing but trouble.
Hannah has been nothing but trouble since she got here.
You should also be aware that a complex sentence can contain more
than one dependent clause. Here are some examples of those types of complex
sentences:
Because I was often late, and since I was always forgetting things,
I was regarded as a scatterbrain by my friends.
Although the war ended, and as people tend to have short memories,
the city’s people were still divided over its impact.
Independent and Dependent Clauses
We have mentioned several times that a complex sentence contains an
independent clause and at least one dependent clause. But what are clauses in a
sentence? And why are they important in grammar?
Let’s look back at the earlier example of a complex sentence:
I like to eat candy before I watch a movie.
As we stated earlier, “I like to eat candy” is an independent
clause. It makes sense as a standalone sentence. “Before I watch a movie” does not make sense
on its own. However, let’s tweak the sentence a bit:
I like to eat candy, but I don’t like to eat popcorn.
The sentence now contains two independent clauses, as “I like to
eat candy” and “I don’t like to eat popcorn” could both form complete
sentences. The example has now become a compound sentence, i.e. one that
contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (but).
However, there is an important distinction to be made when a
subordinating conjunction is added to a clause. These words – such as since,
whenever, although, because – act to make a clause a dependent clause, even if
it looks like an independent clause.
I like to eat candy (independent clause – makes sense on its own).
Because I like to eat candy (dependent clause – does not make sense
on its own without more information).
A complex sentence is formed when you join a main clause and a
subordinate clause with a connective. If two clauses are connected with a
subordinating conjunction, it's a complex sentence.
A subordinate clause is one that relies on a main clause to make
sense.
The connectives in complex sentences are subordinating conjunctions
and they tell us about the order or the place in which things happened or
specify a cause or effect relationship between events. Connectives used in
complex sentences include after, although, as, because, if, since, unless,
when.
I love roast potatoes, although my mum prefers them mashed.
You need to prepare for the spelling test tomorrow if you want to
get all your spellings right.
The big dog barked whenever I knocked on the door.
Complex sentences can also be constructed by including relative
clauses (which are subordinate clauses), for example: Tom, who liked to read,
settled down happily with his new book.
What is a complex or multi-clause sentence?
Complex sentences can also be referred to as multi-clause
sentences.
Complex Sentences from
Literature
Below are some quotes from that classic books that can be
considered complex sentences:
“Because he was so small, Stuart was often hard to find around the
hour.”
E.B White – Stuart Little
“I’ve never any pity for conceited people, because I think they
carry their comfort about with them.”
George Eliot – The Mill on the Floss
“And now that you don’t have to be perfect, you can be good.”
John Steinbeck — East of Eden
Compound vs. Complex Sentences
You should not confuse a compound sentence with a complex sentence.
The former is composed of two independent clauses, i.e. a clause that could be
a complete sentence on its own, and the latter is composed of an independent
clause and dependent clause.
Because he was running fast, he was panting hard.
The above is an example of a complex sentence. We can tell the
difference between a complex sentence and a compound sentence because the
complex sentence has a dependent clause. A dependent clause – in this case,
“because he was running fast” – is not a complete thought, i.e. the phrase does
not make sense as a complete sentence on its own and needs additional
information.
We could rewrite the sentence to make it a compound sentence:
He was running fast, and he was panting hard.
“He was running fast” and “he was panting hard” are both
independent clauses, i.e. they make sense on their own. Therefore, the compound
sentence is created by linking the two clauses together using the coordinating
conjunction “and”.
Some more examples of complex vs compound sentences:
She sent back the meal after she noticed it was cold. (complex
sentence)
She sent back the meal, for she realized she wasn’t hungry now.
(compound sentence)
Although Jim was successful in business, he was still lonely.
(complex)
Jim was successful in business, but he was still lonely. (compound)
I will either succeed or fail; these are the only two options for
me. ( compound )
A Compound-Complex Sentence
A compound-complex sentence is one with at least two independent
clauses and at least one dependent clause.
A
complex-compound sentence
(or compound-complex sentence) has many clauses, at least one of which is a
relative clause: The dog, which is eating the bone, is happy, but the cat is
sad.
A simple sentence consists of only one clause. A compound sentence consists
of two or more independent clauses. A complex sentence has at least one
independent clause plus at least one dependent clause.
What is simple compound and complex sentences with examples?
A simple sentence consists of only one clause. A compound sentence
consists of two or more independent clauses. A complex sentence has at least
one independent clause plus at least one dependent clause.
What is an example of a compound complex sentence?
Example: Because the soup was too cold, I warmed it in the
microwave. A compound-complex sentence is comprised of at least two independent
clauses and one or more dependent clauses. Example: Though Mitchell prefers
watching romantic films, he rented the latest spy thriller, and he enjoyed it
very much.
Examples of compound-complex sentences
Kate doesn't like cartoons because they are loud, so she doesn't
watch them.
The dog started barking so the cat ran away and I couldn't keep up,
so I stopped.
She likes to sleep in but she can get up early if she has work.
Although my friends begged me, I chose not to go to the reunion.
Many people enjoyed the movie; however, Alex did not.
Although the farmer is ready, the ground is still too wet to plow.
If the ozone layer collapses, the global community will suffer.
Although I'm not very good, I really enjoy playing football.
I’d like to see the North Pole, but I will never go where it is
that cold!
Because he did not know the route well, he drove slowly.
Walking through the wood, he saw a fox that was following him.
When Uncle Samuel comes to town, we all have a good time.
compound)
Exercises
Form compound or complex sentences [ as indicated ] from the following
groups of simple sentences . Omit a word or two where necessary :
1- ] The boy closed the door . He walked away . [ Compound ]
2- ] Hatem works badly . He plays games well . [ Compound ]
3- ] The children had finished their lessons . They went home . [
Complex ]
4- ] We come to school on Sunday . We have a holiday on Friday and
Saturday . [ Compound ]
5- ] Ahmad went up the hill . Mohamad went up the hill . They
fetched a pail of water .[Compound] 6- ] Nader fell down . He broke his crown .
Salem came tumbling after . [ Compound ]
7- ] We decided to remain at home . It was foggy . [ Compound ]
8- ] We decided to remain at home . It was foggy . [ Complex ]
9- ] You said something . I do not understand it . [ Complex ]
10- ] The students were trapped in a cave . One of them has already
been brought out . [ Complex ]
11- ] They could not decide what to do . They asked my advice . [
Compound ]
12- ] She spoke French rapidly . He couldn’t understand her . [
Complex ]
13- ] A German is coming to see me . I made acquaintance in Hamburg
last year . [ Complex ]
14- ] Any of these problems can be solved by ordinary intelligence
and hard work . None of them are too difficult for that . [ Complex ]
A clause “a group of words containing a subject and predicate and
functioning as a member of a complex or compound sentence. ” – Merriam-Webster
What is a Clause in a Sentence?
In its simplest form, a clause in grammar is a subject plus a verb.
The subject is the entity “doing” the action of the sentence and the verb is
the action that subject completes. A clause creates a complete thought (an idea
or a statement that can stand alone).
A complete thought is also called a main clause or independent
clause (IC).
Examples of clauses:
subject + verb. = complete thought (IC)
I eat. = complete thought (IC)
Sharon speaks. = complete thought (IC)
A clause may include the verb predicate as well. But, it must
include at least the subject and verb to be considered a clause.
Examples of clauses:
Subject + verb (predicate). = complete thought (IC)
I eat bananas. = complete thought (IC)
Sharon speaks loudly. = complete thought (IC)
It should be noted, too, that a clause in a sentence is different
from a phrase in that it must contain a subject and a verb.
Example:
I graduated last year. (One clause sentence)
When I came here, I saw him. (Two clause sentence)
When I came here, I saw him, and he greeted me. (Three clause
sentence)
A clause is comprised of a group of words which includes a subject
and a finite verb. A clause contains only one subject and one verb. The subject
of a clause can be mentioned or hidden, but the verb must be apparent and
distinguishable.
A clause is a group of words that contains a verb (and usually
other components too). A clause may form part of a sentence or it may be a
complete sentence in itself. For example:
He was eating a bacon sandwich.
[clause]
She had a long career but she
is remembered mainly for one early work.
[clause] [clause]
A clause is a group of words that contains a verb (and usually
other components too). A clause may form part of a sentence or it may be a
complete sentence in itself. For example:
He was eating a bacon sandwich.
[clause]
She had a long career but she
is remembered mainly for one early work.
[clause] [clause]
Main clause
Every sentence contains at least one main clause. A main clause may
form part of a compound sentence or a complex sentence, but it also makes sense
on its own, as in this example:
He was eating a bacon sandwich.
[main clause]
Compound sentences are made up of two or more main clauses linked by a conjunction
such as and, but, or so, as in the following examples:
1 - ]I love sport
and
I’m captain of the local football team.
[main clause]
[conjunction]
[main clause]
2- ]She was born in Spain
but
her mother is Polish.
[main clause]
[conjunction]
[main clause]
Basically there are seven kinds of clause which can be
classified on the basis of what they denote in a sentence:
Independent/ Main Clause. ...
Coordinate Clause. ...
Relative Clause. ...
Subordinate Clause. ...
The Noun Clause. ...
The Adjective Clause. ...
The Adverb Clause.
Clauses that are introduced by a subordinating conjunction are
called subordinate clauses. A subordinate clause cannot stand alone. It has to
be attached to an independent clause.
In English, there are mainly three types of subordinate clauses:
adjective clause, adverb clause and noun clause.
Types of Clause
Clauses are mainly of two types:
Independent Clause
The independent clause and subordinate clause are not
equal because the latter cannot form a sentence on its own. The subordinate
clause is, as such, dependent on the independent clause to provide the complete
meaning.
Independent Clause
An independent clause functions on its own to make a meaningful
sentence and looks much like a regular sentence.
In a sentence two independent clauses can be connected by the
coordinators: and, but, so, or, nor, for*, yet*.
Example:
He is a wise man.
I like him.
Can you do it?
Do it please. (Subject you is hidden)
I read the whole story.
I want to buy a phone, but I don’t have enough money. (Two
independent clauses)
He went to London and visited the Lords. (Subject of the second
clause is ‘he,' so “he visited the Lords” is an independent clause.)
Alex smiles whenever he sees her. (One independent clause)
What is an Independent Clause?
Independent clause definition: An independent clause can stand
alone in a sentence. It contains a subject and a verb in its smallest form. A
clause may also include modifiers and a verb predicate. It is a complete
thought and the smallest unit of grammar that is syntactically accurate.
Example of Independent Clauses:
Subject + verb (predicate). = complete thought (IC)
I eat bananas. = complete thought (IC)
Sharon speaks loudly. = complete thought (IC)
In writing, words and modifiers can be rearranged in independent
clauses to create interest.
Example of Independent Clauses:
I eat bananas in the kitchen.
In the kitchen, I eat.
Here, “I eat” is the subject and verb. An object (“bananas”) and a
prepositional phrase (“in the kitchen”) have been added to the clause to make
it more specific. The entire sentence is an independent clause because it is a
complete thought statement.
Outside Examples of Independent Clauses:
While Uber says it is profitable in the US, Lyft has reportedly
told investors it will lose $50 million a month this year. –New York Post
In the above example, Lyft has reportedly told investors it will
lose $50 million a month this year is an independent clause.
He saw her. The Washingtons hurried home. Free speech has a price.
Grammatically complete statements like these are sentences and can stand alone.
When they are part of longer sentences, they are referred to as independent (or
main) clauses.
Two or more independent clauses can be joined by using coordinating
conjunctions ( and, but, for, nor, or, so, and yet) or by using semicolons. The
most important thing to remember is that an independent clause can stand alone
as a complete sentence.
In the following example, the independent clause is a simple
sentence.
Erica brushed her long, black hair.
Next, the coordinating conjunction and joins two independent
clauses.
Fernando left, and Erica brushed her long, black hair.
Next, a semicolon joins two independent clauses.
Fernando left; Erica brushed her long, black hair.
All sentences must include at least one independent clause.
After she told Fernando to leave, Erica brushed her long, black
hair.
In the previous sentence, the independent clause is preceded by a
clause that can't stand alone: After she told Fernando to leave.
Erica brushed her long, black hair while she waited for Fernando to
leave.
Here, the independent clause is followed by a clause that can't
stand alone: while she waited for Fernando to leave.
Beginning sentences with coordinating conjunctions
Any of the coordinating conjunctions ( and, but, for, nor, or, so,
and yet) can be used to join an independent clause to another independent
clause. Can you begin a sentence with one of these conjunctions?
No one knew what to do. But everyone agreed that something should
be done.
An old rule says that you shouldn't. But beginning a sentence with
a coordinating conjunction is acceptable today. (Notice the preceding sentence,
for example.) Sometimes beginning a sentence this way creates exactly the effect
you want. It separates the clause and yet draws attention to its relationship
with the previous clause.
Dependent Clause
A dependent clause cannot function on its own because it leaves an
idea or thought unfinished. It is also called subordinate clause. Dependent
clauses help the independent clauses complete the sentence. A dependent clause
alone cannot form a complete sentence.
Dependent clauses contain a subject and verb. However, they cannot
stand alone as an independent thought. They must be joined with an independent
clause to be grammatically correct.
Example of Dependent Clause:
Every night before I go to bed, I eat bananas.
This example contains the IC, “I eat bananas.” However, a dependent
clause now opens the sentence. While the dependent clause contains a subject
and a verb (“I go”), the dependent clause itself cannot stand alone a complete
thought.
Example of Dependent Clause:
Every night before I go to bed
This is not a complete thought and therefore not a sentence in
English. Every night before I go to bed…what happens? This idea must be joined
with an independent clause to be grammatically correct.
Outside Examples of Dependent Clauses:
While American forces will not be leading the ground war in Syria,
they will be involved in military operations and working without proper
authorization from Congress. –The New York Times
In the above example, While American forces will not be leading the
ground war in Syria is a dependent clause.
You cannot create a complex sentence without using a subordinate
clause in it. Other types of sentences – compound sentences, simple sentences –
can exist without subordinate clauses. When you think about it, the subordinate
clause is what makes the sentence ‘complex’. The subordinate clause requires
the help of the independent clause for it to make sense. It reaches back or
forward across the sentence to contextualize itself, making the sentence more
‘complex’ in the process.
Clauses come in four types: main [or
independent], subordinate [or dependent], relative [or adjective], and noun.
Every clause has at least a subject and a verb.
Subordinate clause
A subordinate clause depends on a main clause for its meaning.
Together with a main clause, a subordinate clause forms part of a complex
sentence. Here are two examples of sentences containing subordinate clauses:
1- ]After we had had lunch,
we went back to work.
[subordinate clause]
[main clause]
2- ]I first saw her in Paris,
where I lived in the early nineties.
[main clause]
[subordinate clause]
A subordinate clause has a subject and verb but, unlike an
independent clause, cannot stand by itself. It depends on something else in the
sentence to express a complete thought, which is why it's also called a
dependent clause. Some subordinate clauses are introduced by relative pronouns
( who, whom, that, which, what, whose) and some by subordinating conjunctions (
although, because, if, unless, when, etc.). Subordinate clauses function in
sentences as adjectives, nouns, and adverbs.
Subordinating
Conjunctions
There are dozens of subordinating conjunctions in English, and
their usage is intrinsically linked to dependent (subordinate) clauses.
Common examples of subordinating conjunctions include: After,
before, even though, although, as much as, when, whenever, because, as long as,
while, since. These words and phrases act as modifiers to a sentence, sometimes
changing the phrase from an independent clause to a dependent clause.
There are two main ways to think about subordinating clauses:
A word or phrase that introduces a dependent clause.
A word or phrase that links an independent and dependent clause.
Using Subordinate Clauses in Complex Sentences
As we mentioned earlier, a subordinate clause is another way of
terming a dependent clause. Both words, subordinate and dependent, offer clues
to help us better understand the function of these clauses in writing.
Dependent means contingent on or determined by, whereas subordinate means lower
in rank or position. That tells us that – grammatically speaking –
subordinate/dependent clauses are not equal to the independent clause in a
sentence.
The subordinators do the work of connecting the dependent clause to
another clause to complete the sentence. In each of the dependent clause, the
first word is a subordinator. Subordinators include relative pronouns,
subordinating conjunctions, and noun clause markers.
Example:
When I was dating Diana, I had an accident.
I know the man who stole the watch.
He bought a car which was too expensive.
I know that he cannot do it.
He does not know where he was born.
If you don’t eat, I won’t go.
He is a very talented player though he is out of form.
Conditional
Clauses .
A conditional clause is one that usually begins with if or unless
and describes something that is possible or probable:
If it looks like rain a
simple shelter can be made out of a plastic sheet
[conditional clause] [main
clause]
I'll be home tomorrow unless
the plane's delayed for hours.
[main clause] [conditional
clause]
Conditional clauses are of two kinds , distinguished by the form
and meaning of the principal clause . The difference between them is important
.
Type
1 : Open Conditions .
Type 1 conditionals refer to a possible condition and its probable
result. They are based on facts, and they are used to make statements about the
real world, and about particular situations.
Conditions: Open and Hypothetical
Formula for understanding the difference between Open Condition and
Hypothetical
Condition.
Open- If + present + will
Hypothetical- If + past + would
Open
Conditions
If Richard works hard, he
will learn soccer.
If the rain stops I shall go for a walk .
Richard has the choice between working and not working. The rain
may stop or it may not . This is what we call an open condition. In an open
condition we have the simple present tense in the if-clause. In the main clause
we have the future tense.
Examples
I will help him if he asks
me.
Unless the rain stops , I will not go for a walk .
If you are right , then I am wrong .
The positions of the clauses can be reversed . When the if-clause
is placed first it is rather more emphatic .
Examples
I will help him if he asks me .
I won’t help him unless he asks me .
He will do the work if [ provided that / on condition that ] he has
the time .
Tenses
Used In Open Conditions .
A great many combinations of tenses may be used in open conditions
.
1- ] Present
Tense In Open Conditions
Tense In Main Clause Example
Present If you
are right I am wrong .
Future If you
help me I will help you .
Future Perfect If I get this right , I shall have answered
every question correctly .
Past If what you say is right , then what I
said was wrong .
Imperative If you meet Mohamad , tell him I want
to see him .
Imperative [more remote possibility]
If you would
[should] meet , Mohamad , tell him I
want to see him .
Imperative If the ground is very dry , don’t forget
to water those plants .
Imperative If he should come , please give him this
book .
Imperative If you should be passing , do come and
see us .
Future If the train should be late , what will
you do ?
- The form with ‘should’ ( should + infinitive
without ‘to’ ) is usually used when some course of action is to be envisaged in
certain possible future circumstances . It is thus most frequently employed
when the main clause is a command or a question .
Past Tense in
‘if’ Clause
Tense In Main Clause Example
Present If I said that ,
I apologize .
Past If I said that , I was
mistaken .
Future If I made a
mistake , I will try to remedy it .
Present
Perfect Tense in ‘if’ clause .
Future If I have made a
mistake , I will try to remedy it.
Present If you have done
your work , you may go to the cinema
Type
2 . Hypothetical Conditions ,
Suppositions .
I'm not sure that there is a universally accepted definition of
open conditional.
Nevertheless, I've seen it used in opposition to the term
hypothetical conditional.
A hypothetical conditional is either the so-called Type 2
conditional:
If it rained, we would need our umbrellas.
Or the so-called Type 3 conditional.
If it had rained, we would have needed our umbrellas.
Or certain mixed conditionals.
If they had seen the film on first aid last month, they would now
be prepared to handle this emergency.
Anything else is an open conditional according to this system
(including the Type 1 conditional):
If it rains, it makes a mess in the garden.
If Richard worked hard, he would learn grammar.
I would help him if he asked him.
We are not sure if Richard will work hard, so we cannot know if he
will learn grammar.
Perhaps he will work hard. Then he will learn grammar. We only have
an idea or can
make a guess. We donʼt know for sure.
The following are examples of hypothetical conditions
If Ahmad were here , he would know the answer .
If I had the money , I would buy a new car .
‘If wishes were horses , beggars would ride .’ [ Proverb ]
If I were King , you should be Queen .
- In this type of sentence , too , the clauses may be reversed .
Example
I would buy a new car If I had the money .
Such sentences make a hypothesis which may be contrary to fact or
just something not thought of as a fact .’If Ahmad were here….’ implies that he
is not here . ‘If I had the money’ implies that I have not the money . Or they
imply a doubt . ‘If Hassan worked hard , he would pass the examination .’
suggests ‘……but I am doubtful whether he will work hard .
In sentences of
type 2 [ Hypothetical Conditions ] the past subjunctive is used in the ‘if’
clause and ‘would’ or ‘should’ + the infinitive is used in the
‘if’ clause and ‘would’ or ‘should’ + the infinitive are used in
the main clause . Sentences of this kind may refer to present time , past time
or future time .
1- ] Present Time .
Examples
If Ahmad were here , he would know the answer .
If I had the money , I should buy a new car .
If the grass needed cutting , I would cut it .
If the hat suited me , I would buy it .
Despite the Modal Preterite forms ‘were’ , ‘had’ , ‘needed’ ,
‘suited’ , these sentences express a present condition . They mean ‘ If
Ahmad were here ‘now’ …….’If I the money ‘now’…..’If the grass needed cutting
‘now’…….., etc.
2- ] Past Time
Here are sentences expressing hypothetical conditions in the past
time . You will note that in these there is usually an implied negative .
Examples
If Nader had worked hard , [ in the past ]he would have passed the
examination .
[ Implied negative …….but he didn’t work hard ]
If I had had the money [ some years ago ] , I would have bought a
bigger house .
[ ……but I hadn’t the money ]
If the hat had suited me [ when I saw it in the shop yesterday ] ,
I would have bought it .
I should never had done that work , if you had not helped me .
If you hadn’t told me about it , I might never have gone to see it
.
3- ] Future Time
The idea of futurity in hypothetical condition is often expressed
by the same construction as is used for the present , sometimes with a time
adverb or phrase .
Examples
If Hassan worked hard next term , he would pass the examination .
If you went there , you would see what I mean .
But futurity in
the if-clause is frequently expressed by ‘were to + infinitive .
Examples
What would you say if I were to tell you that Nancy is going to be
married ?
If our train were to arrive punctually , we should have time to
visit your sister .
We can summarize the verb forms in sentences of hypothetical
condition like this :
Present Time Verb in
‘if’ clause Verb in Main Clause
Simple Past Tense [
or subjunctive ] would [ should ] + bare infinitive
Past Time Past Perfect Tense
would [ should ] have + past
participle
Future Time As for
Present Time [ often with a time adverb or phrase ] or : were to + bare
infinitive / would [ should ] + bare
infinitive
Conditions
Expressed By Inversion .
When the ‘if clause’ contains one of the auxiliary verbs ‘were’
, ‘had’ or ‘should’ it can be replaced by a clause without ‘if’ by
inversion of verb and subject .
Examples
Were Mohamad here now [ = if Mohamad were here now ] , he would
explain the whole matter .
Were our train to arrive punctually at 12.45 , we should have time
to visit your sister .
Had you [ = if you had ] asked me , I would have told you the
answer .
I will go , should it be [ = if it should be ] necessary .
Exercise 1:
Underline the differences (will/would and present/past tense)
between the
open and hypothetical conditions. The first one is done for you.
Open Condition! ! ! ! ! Hypothetical Condition
He will do the work if he has time. ! ! He would do the work if he
had time.
I will go for a walk if the rain stops. I would go for a walk if
the rain stopped.
What will you do if I give you the choice? What would you do if I
gave you the choice?
We will help you if you need help.!! ! We would help you if you
needed help.
Iʼll speak if Iʼm sure of the answer. I would speak if I were sure
of the answer.
I will laugh if the joke is comical. I would laugh if the joke was
comical.
Exercise 2: Underline the will/would and present/past tense. Then
write if the sentence
is an open condition or a hypothetical condition in the space
provided.
1. If it is not foggy tomorrow, we will come.
_______________________________
2. If I saw him, I would speak to him.
_____________________________________
3. I would play basketball if you asked me.
_______________________________
4. If the weather men are right, itʼs going to rain this evening.
____________________
5. If he feels hungry, he will eat his dinner.
__________________________________
6. Will you give him money if he asks for it?
_________________________________
7. If he spoke to me, I would speak to him.
__________________________________
8. If it were sunny, I would go to the beach.
_______________________________
Exercise 3: Change the following from open conditions to
hypothetical conditions.
Example: If I have time, I will help you.
Answer: If I had time, I would help you.
1. If he asks me, I will go swimming.
_____________________________________
2. I will sing with him if he lets me.
________________________________________
3. If he listens to what I say, he wonʼt make silly mistakes.
________________________________________________________________
4. If the rain stops, there might be a rainbow.
_____________________________________________________
5. He will open the box if he can find the key.
__________________________________
6. If he has time, he will go to the movie theatre.
_______________________________________________________________
7. If I begin the work, he will finish it.
_______________________________________
8. If you feed the baby, she will stop crying.
___________________________________
Exercise 4: Change the following from hypothetical conditions to
open conditions.
Example: If I was artistic, I would draw you a picture.
Answer: I will draw you a picture, if I am artistic.
1. If he asked me, I would play the game.
___________________________________________________________
2. I would race with him if he had time.
___________________________________________________________
3. If he listened to the song, he would know the lyrics.
______________________________________________________________
4. If the teacher wasnʼt here, we wouldnʼt have homework.
____________________________________________________________
5. He would make dinner if he had the ingredients.
____________________________________________________________
6. If he had interest, he would enter the art contest.
____________________________________________________________
7. If I began practicing, I would memorize the play.
____________________________________________________________
8. If you exercised and ate nutritious food, you would be healthy.
____________________________________________________________
Exercise 5: Underline the will/would and present/past tense. Then
write ʻoʼ for the
sentences that are an open condition and ʻhʼ for the sentences that
are a hypothetical
condition in the space provided.
1. If it is not hot tomorrow, we will have an assembly.
___________________________________________________________
2. If I called him, he would answer.
___________________________________________________________
3. I would play Jungle Speed if I had the game.
___________________________________________________________
4. If you finish the book, you will learn a valuable lesson.
___________________________________________________________
5. If he feels thirsty, he will drink water.
___________________________________________________________
6. Will you give him a star if he earns it?
___________________________________________________________
7. If the bird sang to me, I would be happy.
____________________________________________________________
8. If it were night time, I would go
to bed.
Complete the Conditional Sentences (Type I) by putting the verbs into the correct form.
1- ] If you (send) this letter now, she (receive) it tomorrow.
2- ] If I (do) this test, I
(improve) my English.
3- ] If I (find) your ring,
I (give) it back to you.
4- ] Peggy (go) shopping if she (have) time in the afternoon.
5- ] Simon (go) to London
next week if he (get) a cheap flight.
6- ] If her boyfriend (phone / not) today, she (leave) him.
7- ] If they (study / not)
harder, they (pass / not) the
exam.
8- ] If it (rain) tomorrow,
I (have to / not) water the plants.
9- ] You (be able/ not) to
sleep if you (watch) this scary film.
10- ]Susan (can / move / not)
into the new house if it (be / not)
ready on time.
Complete the Conditional Sentences (Type I) by putting the verbs
into the correct form.
1) If I (go) out tonight, I (go) to the cinema.
2) If you (get) back late, I (be) angry.
3) If we
(not/see) each other tomorrow, we (see) each other next week.
4) If he (come) , I (be) surprised.
5) If we (wait) here, we (be) late.
6) If we (go) on holiday this summer, we (go) to Spain.
7) If the weather (not/improve) , we (not/have) a picnic.
8) If I (not/go) to bed early, I (be) tired tomorrow.
9) If we (eat) all this cake, we (feel) sick.
10) If you (not/want) to go out, I (cook) dinner at home.
11) I (come) early, if you (want).
12) They (go) to the party if they (be) invited.
13) She (stay) in London if she (get) a job.
14) He (not/get) a better job if he (not/pass) that exam.
15) I (buy) a new dress if I (have) enough money.
16) She (cook) dinner if you (go) to the supermarket.
17) They(go) on holiday if they (have) time.
18) We (be) late if we (not/hurry).
19) She (take) a taxi if it (rain).
20) I (not/go) if you (not/come) with me.
What is an Adjective Clause? (Also called Relative Clause)
Adjective clause definition: An adjective clause is a type of
dependent clause that acts as an adjective in the sentence. An adjective clause
will always contain a subject and a verb. However, it cannot stand alone as a
complete thought.
An adjective clause will always begin with one of the following
words:
Relative Pronouns List:
that
where
who
whom
which
Relative Adverbs List:
when
where
why
Example of Adjective Clause:
The boy who you saw at the store committed a robbery.
The adjective clause is acting as an adjective in this sentence.
The adjective clause describes the boy. It contains a subject and a verb, “you
saw.” However, it cannot stand alone as a complete thought. “Who you saw at the
robbery” is not a complete statement.
Additional adjective clause examples:
The store that the boy robbed is on the corner.
The corner of the street where my family lives is surrounded by
investigators.
For more information on adjective / relative clauses, click here.
What are relative clauses? Relative clauses
A relative clause is one connected to a main clause by a word such
as which, that, whom, whose, when, where, or who:
I first saw her in Paris, where
I lived in the early nineties.
[main clause] [relative
clause]
She wants to be with Thomas, who
is best suited to take care of her.
[main clause] [relative
clause]
I was wearing the dress that
I bought to wear to Jo's party.
[main clause] [relative clause]
In the following sentence , mothers is the subject of the clause,
adored is the verb, and whom is the direct object of adored. Again, the clause
modifies Arthur.
Arthur, whom the team mothers adored, was asked to be scorekeeper.
A relative clause begins with a relative pronoun and functions as
an adjective.
In the following sentence, the relative pronoun that is the subject
of its clause and won the Pulitzer Prize is the predicate. This clause couldn't
stand by itself. Its role in the complete sentence is to modify novel, the
subject of the independent clause.
The novel that won the Pulitzer Prize didn't sell well when it was
first published.
In the next example , which is the relative pronoun that begins the
subordinate clause. Celebrities is the subject of the clause and attended is
the verb. In the complete sentence, this clause functions as an adjective
describing ceremony.
The ceremony, which several celebrities attended, received
widespread media coverage.
Note that in a relative clause, the relative pronoun is sometimes
the subject of the clause, as in the following sentence, and sometimes the
object, as in the next sentence.
Arthur, who comes to the games every week, offered to be
scorekeeper.
Who is the subject of the clause and comes to the games every week
is the predicate. The clause modifies Arthur.
A relative clause is one that’s connected to the main clause of the
sentence by a word such as who, whom, which, that, or whose. For example:
It reminded him of the house that he used to live in.
The items, which are believed to be family heirlooms, included a
grandfather clock worth around £3,000.
There are two types of relative clause: restrictive
(or defining) relative clauses and non-restrictive(or non-defining) relative
clauses. The difference between them is as follows:
A restrictive relative clause provides essential information about
the noun to which it refers. It cannot be left out of the sentence without
affecting the meaning. The highlighted section of the first sentence above is a
restrictive relative clause. If it was left out, the sentence would not make
sense:
It reminded him of the house. [which house?]
A non-restrictive relative clause provides information that can be
left out without affecting the meaning or structure of the sentence. The
highlighted section of the second sentence above is a non-restrictive relative
clause. If it was left out, the sentence would still make perfect sense:
The items included a grandfather clock worth around £3,000.
You do not need to put a comma before restrictive relative clauses.
On the other hand, non-restrictive relative clauses should be separated from
the rest of the sentence by a comma or commas. For example:
A list of contents would have made it easier to steer through the
book, which also lacks a map.
Bill, who had fallen asleep on the sofa, suddenly roused himself.
In British English, restrictive relative clauses can be introduced
by that or which when they are referring to things rather than people:
The coat that/which Dan had on yesterday was new.
In this sentence, the writer is identifying the coat by saying it’s
the one Dan was wearing yesterday, as opposed to any other coats he might own.
Non-restrictive relative clauses must always be introduced by which
and never by that:
The coat, which Dan had on yesterday, was made of pure alpaca and
cost a bomb.
In this sentence, there’s no need to identify the coat – it’s
already been mentioned. But the writer is providing a bit of background context
by telling us that Dan was wearing it yesterday.
Restrictive relative clause
A restrictive relative clause (also known as a defining relative
clause) gives essential information about a noun that comes before it: without
this clause the sentence wouldn’t make much sense. A restrictive relative
clause can be introduced by that, which, whose, who, or whom. You should not
place a comma in front of a restrictive relative clause:
She held out the hand which
was hurt.
She held out the hand that
was hurt.
[main clause] [restrictive
relative clause]
You can also leave out that
or which in some restrictive relative clauses:
It reminded him of the house that
he used to rent in Oxford.
It reminded him of the house which
he used to rent in Oxford.
It reminded him of the house he
used to rent in Oxford.
[main clause] [restrictive
relative clause]
Non-restrictive relative clause
A non-restrictive relative clause (also called a non-defining
relative clause) provides extra information that could be left out without
affecting the meaning or structure of the sentence. Non-restrictive relative
clauses are normally introduced by which, whose, who, or whom, but never by
that. You should place a comma in front of them:
She held out her hand, which
Rob shook.
[main clause] [non-restrictive
relative clause]
If a non-restrictive
relative clause is in the middle of a sentence, you should put commas before
and after it:
Bill, who had fallen asleep
on the sofa, suddenly roused
himself.
[non-restrictive
relative clause]
Using relative clauses
Have you ever wondered about when to use that and when to use which
or who in this type of sentence? In fact, for much of the time that is
interchangeable with either of these words. For example:
You’re the only person who has ever listened to me.
You’re the only person that has ever listened to me.
It’s a film that should be seen by everyone.
It’s a film which should be seen by everyone
When referring to something, rather than someone, that tends to be
the usual choice in everyday writing and conversation in British English.
However, there is one main case when you should not use that to introduce a
relative clause. This is related to the fact that there are two types of
relative clause: a restrictive relative clause and a non-restrictive relative
clause.
Omission Of The Relative Pronoun In Defining Clauses .
1- ] When the relative pronoun in a defining clause is in the
objective case , it is often omitted , especially in spoken English .
Examples
The man [ that ] you spoke to was my brother .
The book [ that ] I want is on the table .
He is the kindest man [ that ] I know .
There’s something [ that ] you don’t know .
2- ] Clauses like these , in which the relative pronouns are
omitted , are sometimes called ‘contact clauses’ .
3- ] The relative pronoun can also be omitted in a defining clause
introduced by ‘there is ( was ) ‘ .
Examples
The 12 is the fastest train [ that ] there is to Aswan .
I asked for the best book [ that ] there was on the subject .
4- ] In non-defining clauses , ‘who , ‘whom’ , ‘which’ are
never omitted .
Examples
My brother Hassan , who is eighteen years old , has bought a new
bicycle .
My father , whom you met in London , is now back in Cairo .
This poem , which almost everybody knows , is by Tennyson .
Relative Clauses Introduced By Other Words
When /Where /
Why
An adjective clause may be introduced by the words : ‘where’ ,
‘when’ , ‘which’ , ‘why’ , etc.
Examples
The place where Macbeth met the witches was a desolate heath .
I remember the day when she first wore that pink dress .
I know the reason why he was so angry .
In the above examples the adjective clause is a defining one , but
‘when’ and ‘where’ can also introduce non-defining clauses .
Examples
We will put off the picnic until next week , when the weather may
be better .
They went to the theater , where they saw Ibsen’s ‘A Doll’s House’
.
But
1- ] A noun in a negative sentence is sometimes qualified by an
adjective clause introduced by ‘but’ .
Examples
There was not a single person there but thought you were in the
right .
There is not a man but would like to be in your place .
- Here , ‘but thought’ = ‘who did not thing’ ; and ‘but would like’
= ‘who would not like’ . The ‘but’ contradicts the negative .
- This construction is not common .
As
After ‘same’ and ‘such’ an adjective clause is
usually introduced by ‘as’.
Examples
I shall be surprised if he does this the same way as I do .
She wears the same kind of clothes as her sister wears .
I have never heard such stories as he tells .
‘We are such stuff as dreams are made on .’ [ Shakespeare ]
- But , occasionally ‘that’ can be used after ‘same’ .
Example
She wore the same dress that she wore at her sister’s wedding .
Adjective
Clauses With Formal Subject ‘It’ .
Sometimes a part of a sentence is given front position and is
introduced by ‘it is’ [ or some other form of the verb ‘to be’ singular
number ] and followed by an adjective clause .
Examples
It is work that we want , not charity .
It was Sir Rowland Hill who introduced the penny post in England .
It will not be you who will have to take the blame for this .
It was only Salah’s hard work that made success possible .
What is a Noun Clause?
A noun clause is a type of dependent clause that acts as a noun in
the sentence. A noun clause will always contain a subject and a verb. However,
it cannot stand alone as a complete thought.
Noun clauses are usually introduced by ‘that’ or an
interrogative pronoun , adjective , or adverb
[ e.g. He said that he knew what I wanted . / where I was going . ( statement ) / He
asked me who I was . / why I had come here . / how often I had come . (
questions ) ] .
Noun clauses
1- ]A noun clause functions as a noun in a sentence [ subject or
object ].
Examples
What I want for dinner is a hamburger. (subject of the verb is)
The host told us how he escaped. (direct object of the verb told)
A vacation is what I need most. (complement of the linking verb is)
Give it to whoever arrives first. (object of the preposition to)
2- ]Pronoun case in subordinate clauses
Who, whom, whoever, whomever. In deciding which case of who you
should use in a clause, remember this important rule: The case of the pronoun
is governed by the role it plays in its own clause, not by its relation to the
rest of the sentence. Choosing the right case of pronoun can be especially
confusing because the pronoun may appear to have more than one function.
Example
Look at the following sentence.
They gave the money to whoever presented the winning ticket.
At first, you may think whomever is correct rather than whoever, on
the assumption that it is the object of the preposition to. But in fact the
entire clause, not whoever, is the object of the preposition. Refer to the basic
rule: The case should be based on the pronoun's role within its own clause. In
this clause, whoever is the subject of the verb presented.
3- ] A statement , direct or indirect .
Examples
He said , ‘Where do you live ?’
He asked me where I lived .
Can you tell me what the time is ?
4- ] The object of a preposition .
He only laughed at what we said .
They will be very thankful for whatever you can give them .
That student always pays attention to whatever the teacher is
saying .
You can have this for what I paid for it .
5- ] The complement of a verb .
Examples
The fact is that he doesn’t really try .
It seems / appears that he has never been paid the money .
That is not what I want .
What surprised me was that he spoke English so well .
6- ] In apposition to a noun .
An apposition is another noun or noun clause that is added to a
noun to explain it further – it is in in apposition to it [ e.g. Mr. Sharaf ,
the teacher , explained the work . / Adam , the gardener , digs in the garden .
/ Henry VIII , King of England , died in 1547 . ]
Examples
The fact that the prisoner was guilty was plain to everyone .
The news that we are having a holiday tomorrow is not true .
The idea that you can do this work without thinking is quite wrong
.
7- ] Used with a number of predicative adjectives , like ‘’certain’ ,
‘glad’ , ‘sorry’ , etc.
Examples
I am certain that I posted the letter .
She is very glad that you are able to come .
I am afraid that you are right .
He is quite confident that he will pass the examination .
I am sorry that your brother is ill .
It is possible that I may [ might ] not be able to come .
It is impossible that he should make [ should have made ] a mistake
like that .
- In the last two sentences the noun clause is in apposition to
‘it’ . In sentences like this , ‘it’ is called the ‘formal subject’ ; the real
subject is the noun clause . In this construction the ‘that’ clause is always
in end-position .
- Note that the auxiliary after ‘ it is possible ‘ is may or might
. ; after it is impossible it is ‘should’
A good way to determine the right pronoun case is to forget
everything but the clause itself: whoever presented the winning
ticket is correct; whomever presented the winning ticket is not.
The following two sentences show how you must focus on the clause
rather than the complete sentence in choosing the right pronoun case.
We asked whomever we saw for a reaction to the play.
We asked whoever called us to call back later.
In each sentence the clause is the direct object of asked. But in
the first sentence, whomever is correct because within its clause, it is the
object of saw. In the second sentence, whoever is correct because it is the
subject of called.
Example of Noun Clause:
I remember what you said yesterday.
Here, the underlined portion is the independent clause that can
stand alone. The italicized words, “what you said yesterday,” serve as a
dependent noun clause.
The noun clause is acting as the object of the sentence. In the
noun clause “you said” is a subject plus a verb. This creates the clause (a
subject plus a verb). However, “what you said yesterday” cannot stand alone and
therefore must be paired with an independent clause.
Additional noun clause examples:
I thought what she wore was so chic.
Whomever you confide in is a person you can trust.
8- ] The ‘that’ may be omitted except when the noun clause
precedes the main verb .
Examples
He said [ that ] he would come .
I am afraid [ that ] you are right .
That he doesn’t want to see us is quite obvious .
9- ] Noun clauses that express a hope or a suggestion often have
the auxiliary verb ‘may’ , ‘might’ or ‘should’ .
Examples
I hope we may have the pleasure of seeing you again .
He hoped that they might have the pleasure of seeing her again .
The teacher suggested that each student should tell a story .
10- ] A noun clause may occur in the exclamatory construction with
such words as ‘o’ [ meaning ‘I wish’ ] , Alas [ meaning ‘I am sorry’ ] .
Examples
O that I could swim like you !
‘Alas , that Spring should vanish with the Rose !’ [ Omar
Khayyam , translated by Fitzgerald ]
11- ] The same clause may be a noun clause , an adjective clause or
an adverb clause .
Examples
Tell me where you went . [the subordinate clause is a noun clause ]
I am going to the house where you went . [ It is an adjective
clause qualifying the noun ‘house’ ]
I am going to where you went . [ an adverb clause of place ]
What is an Adverbial Clause?
An adverbial clause is a type of dependent clause that acts as an
adverb in the sentence. An adverbial clause will always contain a subject and a
verb. However, it cannot stand alone as a complete thought.
Adverbial clauses
Many subordinate clauses begin with subordinating conjunctions.
Examples of these conjunctions are because, unless, if, when, and although.
What these conjunctions have in common is that they make the clauses that
follow them unable to stand alone. The clauses act as adverbs, answering
questions like how, when, where, why, to what extent, and under what
conditions.
When Mauna Loa began erupting and spewing lava into the air, we
drove away as quickly as we could.
In the preceding sentence , when is a subordinating conjunction
introducing the adverbial clause. The subject of the clause is Mauna Loa and
the predicate is began erupting and spewing lava into the air. This clause is
dependent because it is an incomplete thought. What happened when the volcano
began erupting? The independent clause we drove away as quickly as we could
completes the thought. The adverbial clause answers the question “When did we
drive?”
In the following sentence, because introduces the adverbial clause
in which van is the subject and needed the verb. This clause is an incomplete
thought. What happened because the van needed repairs? The independent clause
The group of tourists decided to have lunch in the village is necessary to
complete the thought. Again, the subordinate clause as a whole acts as an
adverb, telling why the tourists decided to have lunch in the village.
The group of tourists decided to have lunch in the village because
the van needed repairs.
Example of Adverbial Clause:
You will continue driving north until you see a stop sign.
The adverbial clause is acting as an adverb in this sentence. The
adverbial clause modifies how you will drive. The adverbial clause contains a
subject and verb, “you will continue.” However, it cannot stand alone as a
complete thought. “Until you see a stop sign” is not a complete statement.
Additional adverbial clause examples:
After the movie ended, we ate ice cream.
Beth visits her grandfather whenever she is in town.
Adverb
Clauses .
Adverb clauses do the work of adverbs . The chief types of adverb
clauses are those of :
1- ] Manner , which indicates how an action is done.
Examples
Salah did the work as it ought to be done .
When I get the money I shall spend it as I like .
I shall do the exercises as I have been taught .
He ran as if [ though ] his life depended on it .
Adverb clauses of manner are usually introduced by the conjunctions
‘as’ , ‘as if’ , ‘as though’ , followed by a past subjunctive .
Example
You look as if [ = as you would look if ] you had seen a ghost .
2- ] Place , which indicate where an action was done .
Examples
The house stood where the London road meets the Brighton road .
Stay where you are !
‘Fools rush in where angels fear to tread.’ [ Proverb ]
Adverb clauses of place are introduced by where , or wherever .
3- ] Time which indicate when an action was done . These clauses can be
introduced by a number of conjunctions such as ‘when’ , ‘while’ , ‘after’ ,
‘before’ , ‘until’ , ‘since’ , ‘as soon as’ .
Examples
When it rains , I usually go to the office by bus .
I learned a lot of French while I was in Paris .
She learned English before she came to England .
He kept on with his work until he had finished .
The thief was arrested as he was leaving the bank .
Tenses
Used In Adverb Clauses Of Time And Place .
1- ] Time
In adverb of time , a present tense in the principal clause takes a
present tense in the time clause ; a past tense in the principal clause takes a
past tense in the time clause .
Examples
Present
I like perfect quietness when I am working .
As you go out , please close the door .
As soon as it is dark , the lights of the town go on .
Past
He liked perfect quietness when he was working .
He switched off the radio as soon as the jazz music started .
As he went out he slammed the door .
- But a future tense in the principal clause generally takes a
present tense in the time clause.
Examples
I shall wait until you come back . [ not shall come ]
He will let you know as soon as he has any news . [ not will have ]
We will send the money as soon as the goods are delivered . [ not
will be delivered ]
I am going to write to Mohamad as soon as I have a spare moment . [
not I will have ]
By the time you get back , dinner will be ready . [ not will get
back ]
2- ] Place
The construction in place clauses is similar to that in time
clauses . A future tense in the principal clause is generally accompanied by a
present tense in the place clause
Examples
I will go where you tell me . [ not will tell me ]
‘Where your treasure is , there will your heart be also.’
I shall meet him where I first met you .
- When a place clause is introduced by ‘wherever’ , the subjunctive
equivalent ‘may’ is sometimes used .
Examples
I will find her wherever she may be .
Wherever you may go , he will not forget you .
4- ] Reason [ or Cause ] , which
indicate ‘why’ an action was done . These clauses are generally
introduced by ‘because’ , ‘since’ , ‘as’ , ‘seeing that’ , now that .
Examples
He sold the car because it was too small .
Since /as/ seeing that / now that / you won’t
help me , I must do the job myself .
- Clauses beginning with ‘as’ , ‘since’ , ‘seeing that’ ,
usually precede the principal clause ; those beginning with ‘because’
usually come after it .
Examples
As my secretary is away at present , I have a great many extra
letters to answer .
I have a great many extra letters to answer because my secretary is
away at present .
In the former sentence the emphasis is thrown on to the principal
clause ; in the letter it is thrown on to the adverb clause .
Additional emphasis is given to the adverb clause of reason when it
is preceded by ‘it is’ , ‘it was’ , etc. , and followed by ‘that’ .
Examples
It was [ only ] because the car was so small that he sold it .
- In this construction ‘because’ must always be used , never
‘as’ , etc.
Example
As the car was so small he sold it .
In this sentence the emphasis on the reason for his selling it
would not have been so strong .
5- ] Purpose , These clauses are
usually introduced by ‘so that’, ‘in order that’ , and the somewhat
archaic ‘lest’ ( modern , ‘for fear that’ ; ‘so that’ ….. not )
Examples
Some people eat so that they may live .
Others seem to live in order that they may eat .
He worked hard so that he might win the prize .
He took his shoes off , so that I shouldn’t hear him .
I am telling you this lest you should make a mistake [ for fear that
you should make a mistake / so that you should not make a mistake ] .
- When affirmative clauses of purpose are introduced by ‘that , ‘may’
is generally used for present and future time and ‘might’ for past time
; in negative clauses [ including those introduced by ‘lest’]
, ‘shall’ is used for present time ‘should’ for past
time .
Examples
They are climbing higher so that they may get a better view . [ ‘will’ or ‘can’
could be used instead of ‘may’ ]
I will send him our proposals now so that he may have time to
consider them before our meeting .
[ ‘will’ or ‘can’ could be used instead of ‘may’ ]
He is working late so that he may be free to go away tomorrow . [
‘will’ or ‘can’ could be used instead of ‘may’ ]
They climbed higher so that they might get a better view . [ ‘could’
or ‘would’ could be used instead of ‘might’ ]
I sent him the proposals last week so that he might have time to
consider them . [ ‘could’ or
‘would’ could be used instead of ‘might’ ]
He worked late last night so that he might be free to go away
tomorrow . [ ‘could’ or ‘would’ could be used instead of ‘might’ ]
I hid the book lest he should see it
I hid the book so that he should not see it .
- When the subject of the subordinate clause of purpose is the same
person or thing as the subject of the principal clause , purpose is often
expressed not by a clause but by the infinitive with ‘to’ , ‘in order to’ , ‘so
as to .
Examples
They are climbing higher to get [ in order to get , so as to get ]
a better view .
I will send him our proposals now to give [ in order to give ] him
time to consider them .
‘I come to bury Caesar not to praise him .’ [ Shakespeare ,Julius
Caesar ]
6- ] Concession [ meaning I concede that …….’ , ‘ I grant that ……’ ] .
These clauses are introduced generally by ‘though’ , ‘although’
, ‘ even though’ , occasionally by ‘even if’ , ‘wherever’ , ‘whenever’
, ‘however’ [ with an adjective ] ‘whether …… or not’ , ‘no matter
whether…….or not’
Examples
Though [ although ] he tried hard , he was not successful .
He did well in his examination , even if he didn’t get a prize .
However hard he tries , he never seems able to do the work
satisfactorily .
Whether he works or not , I don’t think he will pass his
examination .
Whatever you may say , I still think I did the right thing .
No matter whether you agree or not , I shall pay him the price he
asks .
- Quite often , especially in spoken English , the words , ‘It
doesn’t matter’ introduce a concession .
Example
It doesn’t matter what you say , I shall go to the dance .
- In concessive clauses that imply a fact , the verb is in the
indicative mood ; but sometimes , in concessive clauses that refer to future or
present time , the subjunctive mood or a subjunctive equivalent is used .
Examples
It would be worth while trying even though it should not succeed at
once .
Though your sins be as scarlet , they shall be white as snow . [ Bible
]
Other constructions with concessive clauses are :
Examples
Poor as he was [ = though he was poor ] he was honest .
Much as I admire him as a writer [ = though I admire him a great
deal ] , I do not like him as a man.
Try as he will [ try as he may ] [ = though he tries hard ] , he
never seems able to do the work satisfactorily .
For all that he seems so bad-tempered [ = though he seems so
bad-tempered ] , I still think he has a very kind nature .
- There is also a construction , especially in conversation – in which
‘though’ comes at the end of the sentence .
Example
Henry looks stupid ; he knows mathematics , though .
This is not a complex sentence so there is not a clause of
concession in it , but ‘though’[ = ‘nevertheless’ , ‘all the same’ ]
gives a concessive meaning to it .
- When the subject of the clause of concession and the principal
clause refer to the same person , a phrase with ‘though’ may take the
place of the concessive clause .
Examples
Though beaten , we were not disgraced .
Though no swimmer , Nancy splashed about happily in the sea.
7- ] Comparison .
These clauses are introduced by ‘as’ [ preceded by ‘so’ ,
‘such’ , ‘as’ in the principal clause ] ,’than’ [ preceded by a comparative in the principal
clause ] .
Examples
This work is not so [as] easy as you think .
That question was not such an easy one as I thought .
That question is easier than I thought .
- Another type of comparative clause has the construction ‘The …….comparative
……the…….comparative’ .
Examples
The more you work , the more you earn . [ Your earnings will be
proportionate to your work ]
The more he has , the more he wants .
The sooner you finish your work , the sooner you will go home .
- In some proverbial expressions this construction has become very
elliptical .
Example
The more , the merrier .
The sooner , the better .
- When an adverb clause of comparison is introduced by ‘than that’
, ‘should’ is often used as an auxiliary .
Examples
I would rather lose the chance of getting this job than that you
should ask your brother to recommend me .
Nothing would please me more than that my daughter should marry
your son .
8- ] Condition [ or supposition ] , which
indicate on what condition a thing happens , happened or w ill happen .These
clauses are introduced by the conjunctions ‘if’ , ‘unless’ [ = if not ] ‘whether’ , ‘as long as’ , ‘as’
, or ‘ that’ [ after ‘supposing’ ,’provided’ , ‘on condition’ ]
.
Examples
I shall go if he asks me .
I shan’t go unless he asks me .
I shall go , whether he asks me or not .
I shall go as long as [ provided that / on condition that / he asks
me
Supposing that he asks you , will you go ?
- There is a type of conditional clause , used in sentences of a
proverbial nature , where the conditional is expressed in the form of a command
.
Examples
Give [ i.e. if you give ] him an inch and he’ll take a yard . [
proverb]
Ask [ = if you ask ] me no questions and I will tell you no lies .
[ proverb ]
Spare the rod and spoil the child . [ = if you spare the rod , you
will spoil the child ]
9- ] Results
A clause of simple result is usually introduced by ‘so that’ .
Examples
I received my wages yesterday , so that I can now pay what I owe
you .
He was speaking very quietly , so that it was difficult to hear
what he said .
- This construction differs from the similar construction
introducing a clause of purpose , in that it is not followed by ‘may’ , ‘might’
, or ‘should’ .
- A clause or result associated with degree is introduced by ‘so…..that’
, ‘such…….that’ , ‘so…as to’ .
Examples
He ran so fast that I could not catch him .
It was such a warm day that I took off my jacket .
Would you be so kind as to carry this ?
Exercise
.
Add adverb clauses to the following main clauses , as indicated .
1- ] He worked ------------ [ Manner ]
2- ] -----------please come and call on me . [ Time ]
3- ] -------------- you cannot afford to slack . [ Cause ]
4- ] You don’t want to go --------, do you ? [ Place ]
5- ] He refused to have oil-stoves in his house ----------[ Cause ]
6- ] -----------it is better to have it , just in case . [ Concession
]
7- ] ---------your conscience will leave you no peace . [ Concession
]
8- ] ------------I shall write to him tomorrow . [ Purpose ]
9- ]--------- there is no need for rudeness . [ Concession ]
11- ] It’s as broad --------------- [ Comparison ]
12- ] It’s not so cold --------------- [ Comparative ]
13- ] There was a storm that night such ---------before nor
---------since . [ Comparison ]
14- ] Mohamad is cleverer ------------- [ Comparison ]
15- ] The sooner he gets out of that habit ------------- [ Comparison
]
16- ] I would rather come another day than that ----------------- [
Comparison ]
17- ] -------------he will go out tomorrow . [ Condition ]
18- ] -------------he would go out tomorrow . [ Condition ] day . [
Condition ]
19- ] -------------he would have gone out yesterday . [ Condition ]
20- ] You can do what you like ------------- [Condition ]
Exercise.
Construct ten sentences each containing an adverbial clause
introduced by a word or expression from the following list , and at the end of
each sentence name the kind of adverbial clause it contains
as , though , as soon as , for fear that , however , seeing that ,
on condition that , in order to , no matter , the less……..the less .
Summary: What are Clauses in Grammar?
To sum up:
Define clause: A clause is a subject plus a verb.
Two types of clauses are main/independent clause and dependent
clause.
An independent clause can stand alone as a complete thought.
A dependent clause contains a subject and a verb but cannot stand
alone.
Subordinate
clause exercise
Underline the subordinate clause in the following sentences.
1. As he was not there, I could not speak to him.
2. I waited for him until he came.
3. We eat so that we may live.
4. I don’t know whether he is innocent.
5. If you eat too much, you will fall ill.
6. I am sure that you are wrong.
7. The teacher said that honesty is the best policy.
8. Tell me where you have put my books.
9. The man who committed the theft last night has been caught.
10. It is difficult to understand why he distrusts his own
children.
Answers
1. As he was not there, I could not speak to him.
2. I waited for him until he came.
3. We eat so that we may live.
4. I don’t know whether he is innocent.
5. If you eat too much, you will fall ill.
6. I am sure that you are wrong.
7. The teacher said that honesty is the best policy.
8. Tell me where you have put my books.
9. The man who committed the theft last night has been caught.
10. It is difficult to understand why he distrusts his own
children.
Choose the correct answer :
1- ] . A clause is
A- ]A group of words that is used as a single part of speech. It
does not contain BOTH a subject and a verb.
B- ]A group of words that
contains both a subject and a verb. It can stand alone or with another clause.
C- ]A word that takes the
place of a noun. a word that is the action or state of being in the sentence.
2- When the day ends, we can
all go home and make cookies.
A- ] co-ordinate clause
B- ] main clause
C- ] concessive subordinate clause
D- ]subordinate clause of reason
3- ]When the day ends, we
can all go home and make cookies.
A- ]temporal subordinate clause
B- ]main clause
C- co-ordinate clause
D- ]conditional subordinate clause
4- ] Before I went to school,
I had a big cup of coffee.
A- ] temporal subordinate clause
B- ] main clause
C- ]co-ordinate clause
D- ]relative subordinate clause
5- ] Before I went to school, I had a huge cup of coffee.
A- ]subordinate clause of reason
B- ]main clause
C- ]co-ordinate clause
D- ]relative subordinate clause
6- ] I had a huge cup of coffee before I went to school.
A- ]temporal subordinate clause
B- ]main clause
C- ]co-ordinate clause
D- ]conditional subordinate clause
7- ] I had a huge cup of coffee because I was starting school
early.
A- ]subordinate clause of reason
B- ]main clause
C- ]co-ordinate clause
D- ]conditional subordinate clause
8- ]We had a great time after the weather cleared.
A- ]subordinate clause of reason
B- ]main clause
C- ]co-ordinate clause
D- ]temporal subordinate clause
9- ] Everything was fine until Sally came along.
A- ]subordinate clause of reason
B- ]main clause
C- ]co-ordinate clause
D- ]conditional subordinate clause
10- ] Whenever I have a bad day, I call my best friend.
A- ]conditional subordinate clause
B- ]main clause
C- ]co-ordinate clause
Relative subordinate clause
1- ] Whenever I have a bad
day, I call my best friend.
A- ]subordinate clause of reason
B- ]main clause
C- ]co-ordinate clause
D- ]conditional subordinate clause
2- ] The kitten is very
cute, and the puppy is cute too.
A- ]conditional subordinate clause
B- ]main clause
C- ]co-ordinate clause
D- ]relative subordinate clause
3- ] The kitten is very cute, but the puppy is cute too.
A- ]concessive subordinate clause
B- ]co-ordinate clause
C- ]main clause
D- ]relative subordinate clause
4- ] Since we are working so hard, I will bring you hot cocoa
someday.
A- ]concessive subordinate clause
B- ]main clause
C- ]co-ordinate clause
D- ]temporal subordinate clause
5- ] If we work hard, our grades will go way up!
A- ]subordinate clause of reason
B- ]main clause
C- ]co-ordinate clause
D- ]conditional subordinate clause
6- ] If we work hard, our grades will go way up!
A- ]relative subordinate clause
B- ]main clause
C- ]co-ordinate clause
D- ]conditional subordinate clause
7- ] Once we get to the game, we can get a hotdog.
A- ]subordinate clause of reason
B- ]independent clause
C- ]co-ordinate clause
D- ]concessive subordinate clause
8- ] We will get to the game, and we will have a hotdog.
A- ]temporal subordinate clause
B- ]main clause
C- ]co-ordinate clause
D- ]conditional subordinate clause
9- ] We will get to the game, and we will have a hotdog.
A- ]relative subordinate clause
A- ]main clause
B- ]co-ordinate clause
C- ]subordinate clause of reason
10- ] We can go camping unless the campground is closed.
A- ]subordinate clause of reason
B- ]main clause
C- ]co-ordinate clause
D- ]relative subordinate clause
11- ] Until you find your keys, we cannot go anywhere.
A- ]conditional subordinate clause
B- ]main clause
C- ]co-ordinate clause
D- ]temporal subordinate clause
12- ] Until you find your keys, we cannot go anywhere.
A- ]subordinate clause of reason
B- ]main clause
C- ]co-ordinate clause
D- ]conditional subordinate clause
13- ] Unless you are scared of kittens, you should come over to my
house.
A- ]relative subordinate clause
B- ]main clause
C- ]co-ordinate clause
D- ]conditional subordinate clause
14- ] While you were at recess, we were having cake and ice-cream.
A- ]concessive subordinate clause
B- ]main clause
C- ]co-ordinate clause
D- ]temporal subordinate clause
15- ] A main clause
A- ]cannot stand alone
B- ]can stand alone
D- ]must have a dependent clause
16- ] A subordinate clause
A- ] Does not express a complete thought
B- ] Must have an independent clause to stand
C- ] Can stand alone
Exercises
Combine each of the following pairs of sentences into one sentence
by means of a relative clause , using contact clauses where possible :
1- ] He will have to get up early . He won’t like it .
2- ] I’ve got to entertain my mother-in-law . I can’t stand her .
3- ] He went to Oxford . He read Classics there .
4- ] The ₤ 30,000,000 issue was underwritten by X Y Z & Co .
Lord A is Chairman of this company. 5- ] The driver has driven a car for twenty
years . His license has just been endorsed .
6- ] The worries have aged him . He has had these worries .
7- ] Lewis Carroll was really a mathematician . He wrote Alice
in Wonderland .
8- ] The firm have dispersed with his services . He has been
employed there for thirty years .
9- ] The house has two spare bedrooms . We’ve bought it .
10- ] The rat is in the trap . It ate the cheese . Soha bought the
cheese .
Complete these sentences by inserting the correct introductory
words :
1- ] He had a natural thoughtfulness such-----------is rarely seen
in one so young .
2- ] You may do ------------ever you like , go -----------ever you
choose and with ---------ever you please .
3- ] I remember the time ------------you could buy a 2-oz bar of
chocolate for 1p .
4- ] ‘Wat chapter have you reached ?’ ‘The one-------- the body
disappears !’
Re-write the following sentences so that each contains a
non-defining relative clause .
1- ] Shakespeare was born at Stratford and wrote many plays .
2- ] Liverpool is a busy port containing miles of docks .
3- ] the Portuguese sailor , Magellan , gave his name to the famous
straits .
4- ] The paintings by Vermeer in the Art Gallery are insured for a
large amount .
5- ] This newly-published book was recently summarized in a paper .
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