Punctuation , Grammar American & British [ 28 ]

28- ] Grammar American & British 

Punctuation .

Punctuation: Definition,

There was no punctuation in any languages of ancient times. With the advancement of civilization, punctuation was introduced in the written form of the language to help a reader distinguish words and ideas from each other and to mirror the natural rhythms of the spoken language. Punctuation is simply a device for making it easy to read and understand written or printer matter.

Punctuation Types

Capitalization

Periods

Commas

Semicolons

Colons

Quotation Marks

Parentheses and Brackets

Apostrophes

Hyphens

Dashes

Ellipses

Question Marks

Exclamation Points

Slashes

Usage Rules

Capitalization .

Capitalization is the writing of a word with its first letter in uppercase and the remaining letters in lowercase. Experienced writers are stingy with capitals. It is best not to use them if there is any doubt.

8 Capitalization Rules for English Grammar

Most of the words we capitalize in English are what we call proper nouns. They're the names of specific, unique things like Mount Fuji, Idaho, or your friend David. Meanwhile, when you're talking about a common thing of which there are many - like mountains or states - you don't need a capital letter. That's the simplest explanation of when to capitalize words in English.

Of course, most grammar rules are not this simple. So, let's review some of the most important rules of capitalization. You should always capitalize the following.

1. The First Letter in a Sentence

It's important to always capitalize the first letter of a sentence. This is perhaps the easiest and most straightforward of the capitalization rules, as there are virtually no exceptions or other complications. If it's the first word in a sentence, capitalize it.

2. The First Word in Quotations

If the sentence is a quotation within a larger sentence, capitalize it, but only if it's a complete sentence. If it's merely a phrase that fits neatly into the larger sentence, it doesn't require capitalization. Here are some examples:

Capitalized: The waiter said, "My manager will be here shortly," but he never came.

Not capitalized: The waiter told us that his manager would "be here shortly," but he never came.

Capitalized: Ernest Hemingway famously said, "The way to learn whether a person is trustworthy is to trust him."

Not capitalized: Hemingway said the way to learn if someone is "trustworthy" is "to trust him."

But Not After Colons and Semicolons

Unlike words after quotation marks, words after a colon don't need to be capitalized. Colons are often used before the introduction of a list. In this case, they're usually not introducing a complete sentence and, as such, shouldn't be capitalized. For example:

Here's her favorite reading material: books, magazines, and travel guides.

Consider packing the following items: bug spray, sunscreen, shampoo, and chapstick.

Similarly, you generally don't capitalize after a semicolon. Even though a semicolon can be used to separate two independent clauses, they're considered a part of the same sentence. For example:

Dad has always been a strict disciplinarian; however, he made an exception this time.

Joey wants to go to the park; I told him I need to finish my work first.

 3. Titles of People

This one may seem obvious, but it's not as easy as it looks. Of course, you capitalize the first letter of a person's first, middle, and last names (John Quincy Adams), but you also capitalize suffixes (like Jr., the Great, or Princess of Power) and titles.

Titles can be as simple as Mr., Mrs. or Dr., but they also apply to situations in which you address a person by his or her position as though it were part of their name. For example:

Capitalized: I'm writing my report on President Abraham Lincoln.

Not capitalized: During the Civil War, Abraham Lincoln was the president of the United States.

Capitalized: While I was an intern, I shadowed Senior Marketing Director Sam Jones for a day.

Not capitalized: Sam Jones is the most productive marketing director in the department.

Capitalize people's titles if they come before the person's name or are used instead of the person's real name. For example, the Honorable Judge Eugene Crane may be called "Judge Crane" or simply "Judge." Always capitalize his title, "Judge." Be sure to capitalize titles if used in direct address too, such as, "Will my dog be okay, Doctor?"

4. Days, Months, and Holidays

When you look at a calendar, almost every word is capitalized. That's because you should always capitalize days of the week and months of the year (even when they're abbreviated). Additionally, holidays are also capitalized whenever you write them. Some examples include:

Monday

Saturday

January

December

Christmas

Hanukkah

Ramadan

Easter

Fourth of July

Yom Kippur

Thanksgiving

But Not Seasons

Even though we capitalize days, months, and holidays, not every word falls in this. We don't need to capitalize "winter," "spring," "summer," or "fall" (or "autumn") unless it's part of a title or proper noun.

5. The Pronoun "I"

It's only necessary to capitalize other pronouns when they begin a sentence. However, the pronoun "I" is always capitalized, no matter where it falls in a line. For example:

I don't know about you, but I would wait for it to go on sale.

He said that we can go home, but I'd wait to hear from the manager.

Sandra and I are going to the movies later tonight.

6. Proper Nouns

Specific people, places, or things will generally be capitalized. It's what differentiates proper nouns from common nouns. For example, a common noun would be tower, while a proper noun would be the Eiffel Tower. Categories of proper nouns include:

Names of mountains, mountain ranges, hills, and volcanoes (e.g., Mt. Olympus and Mount Vesuvius)

Cities and countries (e.g., Austin and Argentina)

Names of bodies of water, including rivers, lakes, oceans, seas, streams, and creeks (e.g., Mississippi River and Muscogee Creek)

Names of buildings, monuments, bridges, and tunnels (e.g., the Statue of Liberty and Holland Tunnel)

Street names (e.g., Manhattan Avenue and Oxford Street)

 Schools, colleges, and universities (e.g., Harvard University and Boston College)

Political divisions, including continents, regions, states, counties, and towns (e.g., North America and the Wayne County)

Nationalities and languages (e.g., French and English)

7. Closing a Letter

When we sign off on letters, we generally close with a valediction like "Sincerely" or "Yours truly." The first word in these farewell words or complimentary closes should be capitalized, just like the beginning of a sentence. For example:

Wishing you all the best,

Sarah Smith

If you'd like to include your title after your name, that must be capitalized too. For example:

Yours truly,

Marie Loue , Professor Emeritus

The signature is only one important component in a letter. For the full picture, here's How to Write a Letter.

8. Book and Movie Titles

Books, movies, poems, and other creative works often require capitalization. If you have a future as a blogger, you might choose to capitalize headers in your articles. There are two primary ways to draft headers in an online article.

Title Case

You can use title case, where you capitalize:

the first word

adjectives

nouns

verbs

the last word

Meanwhile, you generally don't want to capitalize:

articles (a, an, the)

conjunctions (for, and, but, so)

prepositions with three or fewer words (in, on, at)

The first letter of a work of art is always capitalized, even if it's an article, preposition or conjunction. The last word of these titles always receives a capital too. For example:

The Glass Menagerie

A Few Good Men

Of Mice and Men

Fools Rush In

One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest

Spider-Man: Far From Home

Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee

Here's the low-down on all the rules for capitalization in titles. You can also opt for sentence case, where you capitalize the first word of your header and write the rest as a sentence (but without the terminal punctuation, or period).

Remembering the Rules

Are you a fan of mnemonic devices? They're phrases that help people remember key information. Take a look at these sentences to help you remember each category:

For quick jogs, drive (if people can't tell).

Find quiet justice down in postal codes today.

"Fire quails!" Josh demanded, icing poor cold toads.

The first letter of each word stands for a category:

F - First letter in a sentence

 Q - Quotations

J - Job Titles

D - Days, months, and years

I - Pronoun "I"

P - Proper nouns

C - Closing a letter

T - Titles of books and movies

Capitalization Rules

Rule 1. Capitalize the first word of a document and the first word after a period.

Rule 2. Capitalize proper nouns—and adjectives derived from proper nouns.

Examples:

the Golden Gate Bridge

the Grand Canyon

a Russian song

a Shakespearean sonnet

a Freudian slip

With the passage of time, some words originally derived from proper nouns have taken on a life, and authority, of their own and no longer require capitalization.

Examples:

herculean (from the mythological hero Hercules)

quixotic (from the hero of the classic novel Don Quixote)

draconian (from ancient-Athenian lawgiver Draco)

The main function of capitals is to focus attention on particular elements within any group of people, places, or things. We can speak of a lake in the middle of the country, or we can be more specific and say Lake Michigan, which distinguishes it from every other lake on earth.

Capitalization Reference List

Brand names

Companies

Days of the week and months of the year

Governmental matters

Congress (but congressional), the U.S. Constitution (but constitutional), the Electoral College, Department of Agriculture. Note: Many authorities do not capitalize federal or state unless it is part of the official title: State Water Resources Control Board, but state water board; Federal Communications Commission, but federal regulations.

Historical episodes and eras

the Inquisition, the American Revolutionary War, the Great Depression

Holidays

Institutions

Oxford College, the Juilliard School of Music

Manmade structures

the Empire State Building, the Eiffel Tower, the Titanic

Manmade territories

Berlin, Montana, Cook County

Natural and manmade landmarks

Mount Everest, the Hoover Dam

Nicknames and epithets

Andrew "Old Hickory" Jackson; Babe Ruth, the Sultan of Swat

Organizations

American Center for Law and Justice, Norwegian Ministry of the Environment

Planets

Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, but policies vary on capitalizing earth, and it is usually not capitalized unless it is being discussed specifically as a planet: We learned that Earth travels through space at 66,700 miles per hour.

Races, nationalities, and tribes

Eskimo, Navajo, East Indian, Caucasian, African American (Note: white and black in reference to race are lowercase)

Religions and names of deities

Note: Capitalize the Bible (but biblical). Do not capitalize heaven, hell, the devil, satanic.

Special occasions

the Olympic Games, the Cannes Film Festival

Streets and roads

Lowercase Reference List

Here is a list of categories not capitalized unless an item contains a proper noun or proper adjective (or, sometimes, a trademark). In such cases, only the proper noun or adjective is capitalized.

Animals

antelope, black bear, Bengal tiger, yellow-bellied sapsucker, German shepherd

Elements

Always lowercase, even when the name is derived from a proper noun: einsteinium, nobelium, californium

Foods

Lowercase except for brand names, proper nouns and adjectives, or custom-named recipes: Tabasco sauce, Russian dressing, pepper crusted bluefin tuna, Mandy's Bluefin Surprise

Heavenly bodies besides planets

Never capitalize the moon or the sun.

Medical conditions

Epstein-Barr syndrome, tuberculosis, Parkinson's disease

Minerals

Plants, vegetables, and fruits

poinsettia, Douglas fir, Jerusalem artichoke, organic celery, Golden Delicious apples

Seasons and seasonal data

spring, summertime, the winter solstice, the autumnal equinox, daylight saving time

Rule 3. A thorny aspect of capitalization: where does it stop? When does the Iraq war become the Iraq War? Why is the legendary Hope Diamond not the Hope diamond? Everyone writes New York City, so why does the Associated Press Stylebook recommend New York state? There aren't always easy formulas or logical explanations. Research with reference books and search engines is the best strategy.

In the case of brand names, companies are of little help, because they capitalize any word that applies to their merchandise. Domino's Pizza or Domino's pizza? Is it Ivory Soap or Ivory soap, a Hilton Hotel or a Hilton hotel? Most writers don't capitalize common nouns that simply describe the products (pizza, soap, hotel), but it's not always easy to determine where a brand name ends. There is Time magazine but also the New York Times Magazine. No one would argue with Coca-Cola or Pepsi Cola, but a case could be made for Royal Crown cola.

If a trademark starts with a lowercase word or letter (e.g., eBay, iPhone), many authorities advise capitalizing it to begin a sentence.

Example: EBay opened strong in trading today.

Rule 4. Capitalize titles when they are used before names, unless the title is followed by a comma. Do not capitalize the title if it is used after a name or instead of a name.

Examples:

The president will address Congress.

Chairman of the Board William Bly will preside at the conference.

The chairman of the board, William Bly, will preside.

The senators from Iowa and Ohio are expected to attend.

Also expected to attend are Senators Buzz James and Eddie Twain.

The governors, lieutenant governors, and attorneys general called for a special task force.

Governor Fortinbrass, Lieutenant Governor Poppins, and Attorney General Dalloway will attend.

NOTE

Out of respect, some writers and publishers choose to capitalize the highest ranks in government, royalty, religion, etc.

Examples:

The President arrived.

The Queen spoke.

The Pope decreed.

Many American writers believe this to be a wrongheaded policy in a country where, theoretically, all humans are perceived as equal.

Rule 5. Titles are not the same as occupations. Do not capitalize occupations before full names.

Examples:

director Steven Spielberg

owner Helen Smith

coach Biff Sykes

Sometimes the line between title and occupation gets blurred. One example is general manager: is it a title or an occupation? Opinions differ. Same with professor: the Associated Press Stylebook considers professor a job description rather than a title, and recommends using lowercase even before the full name: professor Robert Ames.

However, titles replacing someone's first name are generally capitalized.

Example: Here comes Professor Ames.

Rule 6a. Capitalize a formal title when it is used as a direct address. The more formal the title, the more likely it is to be capitalized.

Examples:

Will you take my temperature, Doctor?

We're sorry to report, Captain, that we're headed for choppy waters.

That's what you say, mister.

Good afternoon, sweetheart.

Rule 6b. Capitalize relatives' family names (kinship names) when they immediately precede a personal name, or when they are used alone in place of a personal name.

Examples:

I found out that Mom is here.

You look good, Grandpa.

Andy and Opie loved Aunt Bee's apple pies.

However, these monikers are not capitalized when they are used with possessive nouns or pronouns, or when they follow the personal name, or when they do not refer to a specific person.

Examples:

My mom is here.

Joe's grandpa looks well.

The James brothers were notorious robbers.

There's not one mother I know who would allow that.

Rule 6c. Capitalize nicknames in all cases.

Examples:

Meet my brothers, Junior and Scooter.

I just met two guys named Junior and Scooter.

Rule 7. Capitalize specific geographical regions. Do not capitalize points of the compass.

Examples:

We had three relatives visit from the West.

Go west three blocks and then turn left.

We left Florida and drove north.

We live in the Southeast.

We live in the southeast section of town.

Most of the West Coast is rainy this time of year. (referring to the United States)

The west coast of Scotland is rainy this time of year.

Some areas have come to be capitalized for their fame or notoriety:

Examples:

I'm from New York's Upper West Side.

I'm from the South Side of Chicago.

You live in Northern California; he lives in Southern California.

Rule 8. In general, do not capitalize the word the before proper nouns.

Examples:

We visited the Grand Canyon.

They're fans of the Grateful Dead.

In special cases, if the word the is an inseparable part of something's official title, it may be capitalized.

Example: We visited The Hague.

Rule 9. It is not necessary to capitalize city, town, county, etc., if it comes before the proper name.

Examples:

the city of New York

New York City

the county of Marin

Marin County

Rule 10a. Always capitalize the first word in a complete quotation, even midsentence.

Example: Lamar said, "The case is far from over, and we will win."

Rule 10b. Do not capitalize quoted material that continues a sentence.

Example: Lamar said that the case was "far from over" and that "we will win."

Rule 11. For emphasis, writers sometimes capitalize a midsentence independent clause or question.

Examples:

One of her cardinal rules was, Never betray a friend.

It made me wonder, What is mankind's destiny?

Rule 12. Capitalize the names of specific course titles, but not general academic subjects.

Examples:

I must take history and Algebra 101.

He has a double major in European economics and philosophy.

Rule 13. Capitalize art movements.

Example: I like Surrealism, but I never understood Abstract Expressionism.

Rule 14. Do not capitalize the first item in a list that follows a colon.

Example: Bring the following: paper, a pencil, and a snack.

For more on capitalization after a colon, go to "Colons," Rules 1, 3, and 4.

Rule 15. Do not capitalize "the national anthem."

Rule 16a. Composition titles: which words should be capitalized in titles of books, plays, films, songs, poems, essays, chapters, etc.? This is a vexing matter, and policies vary. The usual advice is to capitalize only the "important" words. But this isn't really very helpful. Aren't all words in a title important?

The following rules for capitalizing composition titles are virtually universal.

Capitalize the title's first and last word.

Capitalize all adjectives, adverbs, and nouns.

Capitalize all pronouns (including it).

Capitalize all verbs, including the verb to be in all forms (is, are, was, has been, etc.).

Capitalize no, not, and the interjection O (e.g., How Long Must I Wait, O Lord?).

Do not capitalize an article (a, an, the) unless it is first or last in the title.

Do not capitalize a coordinating conjunction (and, or, nor, but, for, yet, so) unless it is first or last in the title.

Do not capitalize the word to, with or without an infinitive, unless it is first or last in the title.

Otherwise, styles, methods, and opinions vary; for instance, certain short conjunctions (e.g., as, if, how, that) are capped by some, lowercased by others.

A major bone of contention is prepositions. The Associated Press Stylebook recommends capitalizing all prepositions of more than three letters (e.g., with, about, across). Other authorities advise lowercase until a preposition reaches five or more letters. Still others say not to capitalize any preposition, even big words like regarding or underneath.

Hyphenated words in a title also present problems. There are no set rules, except to always capitalize the first element, even if it would not otherwise be capitalized, such as to in My To-go Order (some would write My To-Go Order). Some writers, editors, and publishers choose not to capitalize words following hyphens unless they are proper nouns or proper adjectives (Ex-Marine but Ex-husband). Others capitalize any word that would otherwise be capped in titles (Prize-Winning, Up-to-Date).

Rule 16b. Many books have subtitles. When including these, put a colon after the work's title and follow the same rules of composition capitalization for the subtitle.

Example: The King's English: A Guide to Modern Usage

Note that A is capitalized because it is the first word of the subtitle.

Suppose you are reviewing a book whose title on the cover is in capital letters: THE STUFF OF THOUGHT. Beneath, in smaller capital letters, is the subtitle, LANGUAGE AS A WINDOW INTO HUMAN NATURE. All sides would agree that the main title should be written, The Stuff of Thought. But depending on which capitalization policy you choose, the subtitle might be any of the following:

Language As a Window Into Human Nature

Language as a Window Into Human Nature

Language As a Window into Human Nature

Language as a Window into Human Nature

Any title of more than two words can be a challenge. How would you capitalize a title such as not yet rich? Since the first and last word in any title are always capitalized, the only question is whether to cap yet. In this case, yet is an adverb, and adverbs are always capped. So make it Not Yet Rich.

Now suppose the title is rich yet miserable. This time yet is one of the seven coordinating conjunctions (the others are and, or, nor, but, for, and so). Since coordinating conjunctions are not capitalized in titles, the right answer is Rich yet Miserable.

Here are two correctly capitalized titles: Going up the Road and Going Up in a Balloon. In the first title, up is a preposition, and short prepositions are not capitalized. In the second title, Up is an adverb and should be capped.

Along the same lines, compare the following three sentences: I Got It off the Internet, Please Put It Off for Today, and I Hit the Off Switch. In the first example, the preposition off is lowercase. But the word must be capped in the second example because put off, meaning "to postpone," is a two-word phrasal verb (a verb of two or more words). One-word verbs, helping verbs, and phrasal verbs are always capitalized. Off is also capped in the third sentence because the word functions as an adjective in that title, and adjectives are always capitalized.

Although the seven coordinating conjunctions are not capitalized, you may have noticed there are many more than seven conjunctions in English. Most of these are called subordinating conjunctions, because they join a subordinate clause to a main clause. Familiar examples include as, although, before, since, until, when.

There are three approaches to capping subordinating conjunctions: capitalize them all, lowercase them all, or capitalize them if they are words of four letters or more. Take your pick.

.Period (.)

The period is also called full stop in England. A period declares the end of a sentence. It also indicates the separation of sentences so that the readers cannot mix up different sentences.

1- ]  A period is used at the end of a sentence which is complete and not a question or an exclamatory sentence.

Example:

Alex was a little boy when he first saw a person dying. He was so shocked and panicked that he could not sleep for several days.  He still fears the sight of someone’s death.

2- ] The period is also used in abbreviations.

Example:

Saint = St.

Exempli gratia = e.g.

Nota bene = N.B.

Note of Interrogation (Question Mark) (?)

3- ] The note of interrogation is used to complete sentences that form a direct question. Indirect questions are regarded as statements, and they take periods, not question marks.

Example:

Have you had your breakfast?

Where are you going?

I don’t know where he is going. (A statement, not a direct question)

Do you know he was watching TV all day long while I was cleaning the house for the party that we want to throw on this weekend?  (It’s a long sentence, yet it is a direct question.)

Did you once think about your family? Your career? Your future? Your life? (Series of questions using the same subject and verb)

Note:

What? – So? – Right? (Single word questions are used only in informal writing.)

Note of Exclamation (Exclamation mark/point) (!)

4- ] The note of exclamation indicates excitement, either positive or negative. It can also be used for giving additional emphasis to sentences, phrases, or single words, and especially to commands and interjections.

Example:

Wait! Don’t take another step!

I can’t believe she could say that!

What a gorgeous house!

Note: It is best to avoid using a note of exclamation whenever the excitement can be described in words. You should be meticulous in using this punctuation in any form of writing.

Commas

Commas and periods are the most frequently used punctuation marks. Commas customarily indicate a brief pause; they're not as final as periods.

The comma is the most useful and common punctuation mark in English. It has many important roles in making a written form of English easy to read.

Commas usually add breathing scope for the readers in sentences, so that their thoughts cannot get all jumbled up.

The Uses Of Comma (,)

A comma has many uses.

1- ] Comma between Independent Clauses

Usually, a comma separates two independent clauses when they are connected by certain coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, nor, or for). However, if the clauses are very short, no comma is needed.

Example:

They finished dinner in pin-drop silence, but Alex knew that he would have to apologize.

I wanted to watch a movie after dinner, but I could not tell her as I was confused about her reactions.

We had dinner and then I watched a movie. (No comma is needed between these clauses)

2- ] Comma after Introductory Clauses, Phrases, and Expression

Commas are used not only between independent clauses but also after introductory clauses and phrases. Some expressions and connectors which are placed at the beginning of a sentence also require a comma after them.

Example:

If you take off your jacket, you’ll catch a cold. (If the subordinators are used at the beginning of the sentences, the comma marks the separation of the two clauses)

Being insulted, the piper went to the hill. (Participial phrases are always separated from the clauses by commas.)

Before start riding it, you should read the instructions.

When you came here, Alex was the general manager.

Well, I cannot play in the next match.

However, Alex will play in the next match.

In winter we usually stay at home most of the time. (Short phrases like “in winter” don’t need commas.)

Note: A good way to clear the confusion about commas is to read the sentence aloud to make sure whether there is enough pause taken or not for using a comma.

3- ] Series Comma

Commas are used to separate multiple items of the same category in a series. These items can be a series of words, phrases, or clauses.

Example:

We brought pizzas, burgers, chocolate, and a chocolate cake on tour.

The batsman set up his pads, put on his helmet, and played a good knock. (verb phrases)

He is a player, a singer, an actor, and a director.

4- ]  Comma before Tag Question

Commas are used before a tag question which is usually a reassuring statement of a sentence’s overall idea.

They’re ready to go, aren’t they?

They’ll never do it, will they?

He loves you, doesn’t he?

5- ] Comma in Direct Address

Commas are used in vocative uses. Calling someone by name or directly referring to them requires separation by commas.

Example:

Hey, Joe, what are you doing?

Listen, Lee, you have to bowl well today.

You know, kid, when I was your age, I used to go out a lot.

6- ] Comma for Adding Nonessential Ideas and Nonrestrictive Clauses

Commas can be used to add nonessential ideas or facts in the form of words, phrases, or clauses into a sentence. Usually removing these ideas from sentences does not affect the grammatical accuracy of the sentences.

Example:

There’s a palace in London, just across the river, where I visited last week.

The new player, you know him, scored a brilliant century.

I suggest if that’s okay, that you let him go.

7- ] Commas in Names and Dates

Commas are used to separate names of places and dates.

Example:

Jefferson City, Missouri, is one of the biggest cities in the world.

Brisbane, Queensland, is a big city.

They were married April 05, 2013, in Melbourne. (No comma is necessary only for month and day – g., they were married on April 5 in Melbourne.)

He was born June 24, 1993, in London.

8- ] Commas in Dialog

Commas are used in the dialog to set off the indirect speech from the direct speech.

Example:

I told him, “Don’t go there!”

“When we were going there,” she said, “we saw thousands of palm trees.”

“Please, give me that ball”, said the boy.

Common Mistakes with Commas

1. Commas do not separate two verbs or verb phrases joined by a coordinator.

Incorrect: I cleaned, and painted the box.

Correct: I cleaned and painted the box.

2. Commas do not separate two nouns, noun phrases, or noun clauses which are joined by a conjunction.

Incorrect: My coach, and our board president both sent letters.

Correct: My coach and our board president both sent letters.

Rules Of Using Comma

Rule 1. Use commas to separate words and word groups in a simple series of three or more items.

Example: My estate goes to my husband, son, daughter-in-law, and nephew.

Note: When the last comma in a series comes before and or or (after daughter-in-law in the above example), it is known as the Oxford comma. Most newspapers and magazines drop the Oxford comma in a simple series, apparently feeling it's unnecessary. However, omission of the Oxford comma can sometimes lead to misunderstandings.

Example: We had coffee, cheese and crackers and grapes.

Adding a comma after crackers makes it clear that cheese and crackers represents one dish. In cases like this, clarity demands the Oxford comma.

We had coffee, cheese and crackers, and grapes.

Fiction and nonfiction books generally prefer the Oxford comma. Writers must decide Oxford or no Oxford and not switch back and forth, except when omitting the Oxford comma could cause confusion as in the cheese and crackers example.

Rule 2. Use a comma to separate two adjectives when the order of the adjectives is interchangeable.

Example: He is a strong, healthy man.

We could also say healthy, strong man.

Example: We stayed at an expensive summer resort.

We would not say summer expensive resort, so no comma.

Another way to determine if a comma is needed is to mentally put and between the two adjectives. If the result still makes sense, add the comma. In the examples above, a strong and healthy man makes sense, but an expensive and summer resort does not.

Rule 3a. Many inexperienced writers run two independent clauses together by using a comma instead of a period. This results in the dreaded run-on sentence or, more technically, a comma splice.

Incorrect: He walked all the way home, he shut the door.

There are several simple remedies:

Correct: He walked all the way home. He shut the door.

Correct: After he walked all the way home, he shut the door.

Correct: He walked all the way home, and he shut the door.

Rule 3b. In sentences where two independent clauses are joined by connectors such as and, or, but, etc., put a comma at the end of the first clause.

Incorrect: He walked all the way home and he shut the door.

Correct: He walked all the way home, and he shut the door.

Some writers omit the comma if the clauses are both quite short:

Example: I paint and he writes.

Rule 3c. If the subject does not appear in front of the second verb, a comma is generally unnecessary.

Example: He thought quickly but still did not answer correctly.

But sometimes a comma in this situation is necessary to avoid confusion.

Confusing: I saw that she was busy and prepared to leave.

Clearer with comma: I saw that she was busy, and prepared to leave.

Without a comma, the reader is liable to think that "she" was the one who was prepared to leave.

4a. When starting a sentence with a dependent clause, use a comma after it.

Example: If you are not sure about this, let me know now.

Follow the same policy with introductory phrases.

Example: Having finally arrived in town, we went shopping.

However, if the introductory phrase is clear and brief (three or four words), the comma is optional.

Example: When in town we go shopping.

But always add a comma if it would avoid confusion.

Example: Last Sunday, evening classes were canceled. (The comma prevents a misreading.)

When an introductory phrase begins with a preposition, a comma may not be necessary even if the phrase contains more than three or four words.

Example: Into the sparkling crystal ball he gazed.

If such a phrase contains more than one preposition, a comma may be used unless a verb immediately follows the phrase.

Examples:

Between your house on Main Street and my house on Grand Avenue, the mayor's mansion stands proudly.

Between your house on Main Street and my house on Grand Avenue is the mayor's mansion.

Rule 4b. A comma is usually unnecessary when the sentence starts with an independent clause followed by a dependent clause.

Example: Let me know now if you are not sure about this.

Rule 5. Use commas to set off nonessential words, clauses, and phrases (see Who, That, Which, Rule 2b).

Incorrect: Jill who is my sister shut the door.

Correct: Jill, who is my sister, shut the door.

Incorrect: The man knowing it was late hurried home.

Correct: The man, knowing it was late, hurried home.

In the preceding examples, note the comma after sister and late. Nonessential words, clauses, and phrases that occur midsentence must be enclosed by commas. The closing comma is called an appositive comma. Many writers forget to add this important comma. Following are two instances of the need for an appositive comma with one or more nouns.

Incorrect: My best friend, Joe arrived.

Correct: My best friend, Joe, arrived.

Incorrect: The three items, a book, a pen, and paper were on the table.

Correct: The three items, a book, a pen, and paper, were on the table.

Rule 6. If something or someone is sufficiently identified, the description that follows is considered nonessential and should be surrounded by commas.

Examples:

Freddy, who has a limp, was in an auto accident.

If we already know which Freddy is meant, the description is not essential.

The boy who has a limp was in an auto accident.

We do not know which boy is meant without further description; therefore, no commas are used.

This leads to a persistent problem. Look at the following sentence:

Example: My brother Bill is here.

Now, see how adding two commas changes that sentence's meaning:

Example: My brother, Bill, is here.

Careful writers and readers understand that the first sentence means I have more than one brother. The commas in the second sentence mean that Bill is my only brother.

Why? In the first sentence, Bill is essential information: it identifies which of my two (or more) brothers I'm speaking of. This is why no commas enclose Bill.

In the second sentence, Bill is nonessential information—whom else but Bill could I mean?—hence the commas.

Comma misuse is nothing to take lightly. It can lead to a train wreck like this:

Example: Mark Twain's book, Tom Sawyer, is a delight.

Because of the commas, that sentence states that Twain wrote only one book. In fact, he wrote more than two dozen of them.

Rule 7a. Use a comma after certain words that introduce a sentence, such as well, yes, why, hello, hey, etc.

Examples:

Why, I can't believe this!

No, you can't have a dollar.

Rule 7b. Use commas to set off expressions that interrupt the sentence flow (nevertheless, after all, by the way, on the other hand, however, etc.).

Example: I am, by the way, very nervous about this.

Rule 8. Use commas to set off the name, nickname, term of endearment, or title of a person directly addressed.

Examples:

Will you, Aisha, do that assignment for me?

Yes, old friend, I will.

Good day, Captain.

Rule 9. Use a comma to separate the day of the month from the year, and—what most people forget!—always put one after the year, also.

Example: It was in the Sun's June 5, 2003, edition.

No comma is necessary for just the month and year.

Example: It was in a June 2003 article.

Rule 10. Use a comma to separate a city from its state, and remember to put one after the state, also.

Example: I'm from the Akron, Ohio, area.

Rule 11. Traditionally, if a person's name is followed by Sr. or Jr., a comma follows the last name: Martin Luther King, Jr. This comma is no longer considered mandatory. However, if a comma does precede Sr. or Jr., another comma must follow the entire name when it appears midsentence.

Correct: Al Mooney Sr. is here.

Correct: Al Mooney, Sr., is here.

Incorrect: Al Mooney, Sr. is here.

Rule 12. Similarly, use commas to enclose degrees or titles used with names.

Example: Al Mooney, M.D., is here.

Rule 13a. Use commas to introduce or interrupt direct quotations.

Examples:

He said, "I don't care."

"Why," I asked, "don't you care?"

This rule is optional with one-word quotations.

Example: He said "Stop."

Rule 13b. If the quotation comes before he said, she wrote, they reported, Dana insisted, or a similar attribution, end the quoted material with a comma, even if it is only one word.

Examples:

"I don't care," he said.

"Stop," he said.

Rule 13c. If a quotation functions as a subject or object in a sentence, it might not need a comma.

Examples:

Is "I don't care" all you can say to me?

Saying "Stop the car" was a mistake.

Rule 13d. If a quoted question ends in midsentence, the question mark replaces a comma.

Example: "Will you still be my friend?" she asked.

Rule 14. Use a comma to separate a statement from a question.

Example: I can go, can't I?

Rule 15. Use a comma to separate contrasting parts of a sentence.

Example: That is my money, not yours.

Rule 16a. Use a comma before and after certain introductory words or terms, such as namely, that is, i.e., e.g., and for instance, when they are followed by a series of items.

Example: You may be required to bring many items, e.g., sleeping bags, pans, and warm clothing.

Rule 16b. A comma should precede the term etc. Many authorities also recommend a comma after etc. when it is placed midsentence.

Example: Sleeping bags, pans, warm clothing, etc., are in the tent.

NOTE

The abbreviation i.e. means "that is"; e.g. means "for example."

Colons ( : )

Colons are the least used punctuation mark. The usage of colons is limited. Yet, if you know how to use them, you will be able to use them in your writing.

1- ] Colons are used in the salutations of formal letters.

Example:

Dear Sir:

To whom it may concern:

To all members:

2- ] Colons sometimes introduce a series/list to describe some new information after a complete sentence.

Example:

Incorrect: The fruit seller had: bananas, apples, and oranges.

Correct: The fruit seller had three kinds of fruit: bananas, apples, and oranges.

3- ] A colon is also used to connect two independent clauses where the first one explains the second clause or logically follows it. The first word after a colon usually is not capitalized unless the colon introduces a series of new sentences or independent clauses.

Example:

He was just thinking only one thing: what was his dog doing then?

I knew the clue: you just had to read it in the mirror.

4- ] Colons are used for expressing TIME in figures.

Example:

1:30 AM (Not o'clock)

7:35 PM

6:30 in the morning

Semicolons (;)

Semicolons are almost like periods, but they connect two independent clauses or sentences together instead of using a coordinating conjunction. Semicolons between the two clauses or sentences indicate that the clauses are closely related. Semicolons can be replaced by the coordinating conjunctions.

Example:  We do not need a car now; we want to sell it. (This semicolon could be replaced by ‘and’.

Common transitional expressions such as therefore, for instance, namely, indeed, additionally, further, moreover, likewise, and finally are used after a semicolon to start a new clause.

Example:

We used to love hunting; however, it is not legal

He does not like me; likewise, I do not like him.

It’s too cold out here; indeed, it’s winter.

It's no accident that a semicolon is a period atop a comma. Like commas, semicolons indicate an audible pause—slightly longer than a comma's, but short of a period's full stop.

Semicolons have other functions, too. But first, a caveat: avoid the common mistake of using a semicolon to replace a colon (see Colons).

Incorrect: I have one goal; to find her.

Correct: I have one goal: to find her.

Rules Of Using Semicolons .

Rule 1a. A semicolon can replace a period if the writer wishes to narrow the gap between two closely linked sentences.

Examples:

Call me tomorrow; you can give me an answer then.

We have paid our dues; we expect all the privileges listed in the contract.

Rule 1b. Avoid a semicolon when a dependent clause comes before an independent clause.

Incorrect: Although they tried; they failed.

Correct: Although they tried, they failed.

Rule 2. Use a semicolon before such words and terms as namely, however, therefore, that is, i.e., for example, e.g., for instance, etc., when they introduce a complete sentence. It is also preferable to use a comma after these words and terms.

Example: Bring any two items; however, sleeping bags and tents are in short supply.

Rule 3. Use a semicolon to separate units of a series when one or more of the units contain commas.

Incorrect: The conference has people who have come from Moscow, Idaho, Springfield, California, Alamo, Tennessee, and other places as well.

Note that with only commas, that sentence is hopeless.

Correct: The conference has people who have come from Moscow, Idaho; Springfield, California; Alamo, Tennessee; and other places as well. (Note the final semicolon, rather than a comma, after Tennessee.)

Rule 4. A semicolon may be used between independent clauses joined by a connector, such as and, but, or, nor, etc., when one or more commas appear in the first clause.

Example: When I finish here, and I will soon, I'll be glad to help you; and that is a promise I will keep.

Rule 5. Do not capitalize ordinary words after a semicolon.

Incorrect: I am here; You are over there.

Correct: I am here; you are over there.

Hyphen (-)

Hyphens combine words together to make Compound Nouns/Adjectives. Hyphens are also used with some suffixes and prefixes, such as -like, -wise, anti-, and post- to make new adjectives.

Example:

Anti-violent

Dog-like

Ability-wise

Decision-making

City-owned 

Compound numbers and continuous numbers require hyphen in them. A hyphen is used with compound numbers from 21 to 99 in words and with fractions which work as adjectives in the sentence. Fractions which are nouns don’t need hyphens.

Example:

Sixty-five

Twenty-five

Their age is 23-25.

William Shakespeare (1564-1616)

Three-fifths full a glass

Rules Of Hyphens

There are two commandments about this misunderstood punctuation mark. First, hyphens must never be used interchangeably with dashes (see the Dashes section), which are noticeably longer. Second, there should not be spaces around hyphens.

Incorrect: 300—325 people

Incorrect: 300 - 325 people

Correct: 300-325 people

Hyphens' main purpose is to glue words together. They notify the reader that two or more elements in a sentence are linked. Although there are rules and customs governing hyphens, there are also situations when writers must decide whether to add them for clarity.

Hyphens Between Words

Rule 1. Generally, hyphenate two or more words when they come before a noun they modify and act as a single idea. This is called a compound adjective.

Examples:

an off-campus apartment

state-of-the-art design

When a compound adjective follows a noun, a hyphen is usually not necessary.

Example: The apartment is off campus.

However, some established compound adjectives are always hyphenated. Double-check with a dictionary or online.

Example: The design is state-of-the-art.

Rule 2a. A hyphen is frequently required when forming original compound verbs for vivid writing, humor, or special situations.

Examples:

The slacker video-gamed his way through life.

Queen Victoria throne-sat for six decades.

Rule 2b. When writing out new, original, or unusual compound nouns, writers should hyphenate whenever doing so avoids confusion.

Examples:

I changed my diet and became a no-meater.

No-meater is too confusing without the hyphen.

The slacker was a video gamer.

Video gamer is clear without a hyphen, although some writers might prefer to hyphenate it.

Writers using familiar compound verbs and nouns should consult a dictionary or look online to decide if these verbs and nouns should be hyphenated.

Rule 3. An often overlooked rule for hyphens: The adverb ‘very’ and adverbs ending in ‘ly’ are not hyphenated.

Incorrect: the very-elegant watch

Incorrect: the finely-tuned watch

This rule applies only to adverbs. The following two examples are correct because the ‘ly’ words are not adverbs:

Correct: the friendly-looking dog

Correct: a family-owned cafe

Rule 4. Hyphens are often used to tell the ages of people and things. A handy rule, whether writing about years, months, or any other period of time, is to use hyphens unless the period of time (years, months, weeks, days) is written in plural form:

With hyphens:

We have a two-year-old child.

We have a two-year-old.

No hyphens: The child is two years old. (Because years is plural.)

Exception: The child is one year old. (Or day, week, month, etc.)

Note that when hyphens are involved in expressing ages, two hyphens are required. Many writers forget the second hyphen:

Incorrect: We have a two-year old child.

Without the second hyphen, the sentence is about an "old child."

Rule 5. Never hesitate to add a hyphen if it solves a possible problem. Following are two examples of well-advised hyphens:

Confusing: Springfield has little town charm.

With hyphen: Springfield has little-town charm.

Without the hyphen, the sentence seems to say that Springfield is a dreary place. With the hyphen, little-town becomes a compound adjective, making the writer's intention clear: Springfield is a charming small town.

Confusing: She had a concealed weapons permit.

With hyphen: She had a concealed-weapons permit.

With no hyphen, we can only guess: Was the weapons permit hidden from sight, or was it a permit for concealed weapons? The hyphen makes concealed-weapons a compound adjective, so the reader knows that the writer meant a permit for concealed weapons.

Rule 6. When using numbers, hyphenate spans or estimates of time, distance, or other quantities. Remember not to use spaces around hyphens.

Examples:

3:15-3:45 p.m.

1999-2016

300-325 people

Note: Most publishers use the slightly longer en dash instead of a hyphen in this situation.

Examples:

3:15–3:45 p.m.

1999–2016

300–325 people

Here is how to type an ‘en’ dash: On a ‘PC’ , hold down the ALT key and type 0150 on the numeric keypad located on the far right of the keyboard. On a Mac, hold down the Option key and type the minus sign located at the top of the keyboard.

Rule 7. Hyphenate all compound numbers from twenty-one through ninety-nine.

Examples:

thirty-two children

one thousand two hundred twenty-one dollars

Rule 8a. Hyphenate all spelled-out fractions. But do not hyphenate fractions introduced with a or an.

Examples:

More than one-third of registered voters oppose the measure.

More than a third of registered voters oppose the measure.

Rule 8b. When writing out numbers with fractions, hyphenate only the fractions unless the construction is a compound adjective.

Correct: The sign is five and one-half feet long.

Correct: A five-and-one-half-foot-long sign.

Incorrect: The sign is five-and-one-half feet long.

Rule 9a. Do not hyphenate proper nouns of more than one word when they are used as compound adjectives.

Incorrect: She is an Academy-Award nominee.

Correct: She is an Academy Award nominee.

Rule 9b. However, hyphenate most double last names.

Example: Sir Winthrop Heinz-Eakins will attend.

Rule 10. Many editors do not hyphenate certain well-known expressions. They believe that set phrases, because of their familiarity (e.g., high school, ice cream, twentieth century), can go before a noun without risk of confusing the reader.

Examples:

a high school senior

an ice cream cone

a twentieth century throwback

However, other editors prefer hyphenating all compound modifiers, even those with low risk of ambiguity.

Examples:

a high-school senior

an ice-cream cone

a twentieth-century throwback

Rule 11. When in doubt, look it up. Some familiar phrases may require hyphens. For instance, is a book up to date or up-to-date? Don't guess; have a dictionary close by, or look it up online.

Hyphens with Prefixes and Suffixes

A prefix (a, un, de, ab, sub, post, anti, etc.) is a letter or set of letters placed before a root word. The word prefix itself contains the prefix pre. Prefixes expand or change a word's meaning, sometimes radically: the prefixes a, un, and dis, for example, change words into their opposites (e.g., political, apolitical; friendly, unfriendly; honor, dishonor).

Rule 1. Hyphenate prefixes when they come before proper nouns or proper adjectives.

Examples:

trans-American

mid-July

Rule 2. In describing family relations, great requires a hyphen, but grand becomes part of the word without a hyphen.

Examples:

My grandson and my granduncle never met.

My great-great-grandfather fought in the Civil War.

Do not hyphenate half brother or half sister.

Rule 3. For clarity, many writers hyphenate prefixes ending in a vowel when the root word begins with the same letter.

Example:

ultra-ambitious

semi-invalid

re-elect

Rule 4. Hyphenate all words beginning with the prefixes self-, ex- (i.e., former), and all-.

Examples:

self-assured

ex-mayor

all-knowing

Rule 5. Use a hyphen with the prefix re when omitting the hyphen would cause confusion with another word.

Examples:

Will she recover from her illness?

I have re-covered the sofa twice.

Omitting the hyphen would cause confusion with recover.

I must re-press the shirt.

Omitting the hyphen would cause confusion with repress.

The stamps have been reissued.

A hyphen after re- is not needed because there is no confusion with another word.

Rule 6. Writers often hyphenate prefixes when they feel a word might be distracting or confusing without the hyphen.

Examples:

de-ice

With no hyphen we get deice, which might stump readers.

co-worker

With no hyphen we get coworker, which could be distracting because it starts with cow.

A suffix (y, er, ism, able, etc.) is a letter or set of letters that follows a root word. Suffixes form new words or alter the original word to perform a different task. For example, the noun scandal can be made into the adjective scandalous by adding the suffix ous. It becomes the verb scandalize by adding the suffix ize.

Rule 1. Suffixes are not usually hyphenated. Some exceptions: -style, -elect, -free, -based.

Examples:

Modernist-style paintings

Mayor-elect Smith

sugar-free soda

oil-based sludge

Rule 2. For clarity, writers often hyphenate when the last letter in the root word is the same as the first letter in the suffix.

Examples:

graffiti-ism

wiretap-proof

Rule 3. Use discretion—and sometimes a dictionary—before deciding to place a hyphen before a suffix. But do not hesitate to hyphenate a rare usage if it avoids confusion.

Examples:

the annual dance-athon

an eel-esque sea creature

Although the preceding hyphens help clarify unusual terms, they are optional and might not be every writer's choice. Still, many readers would scratch their heads for a moment over danceathon and eelesque.

address.

Dash (–)

A dash hints a brief break in thought or helps to add information to a sentence. A dash has no space before or after it.

Example:

The man was running around the building—I couldn’t see his face—and disappeared down the alley.

This house—and every house on the street—will be connected by this wire.

Russel Crow—you know him, I think—is coming to our locality.

A dash can replace the conjunctions such as namely, that is, or in other words to add new information or explanation.

Example:

I was thinking about another road—the one through New York.

There’s only one way not to lose—don’t even participate in the game.

Apostrophe (’)

An apostrophe indicates possession and the exclusion of letters in contractions.

Example:

They’re going to Canada.

I’m not going.

Robert’s watch

Someone's glasses

Trees’ leaves (If there is an ‘s’ before the apostrophe, no ‘s’ is needed for it)

Teams’ scores

Jones’ pen

Rules Of Using Apostrophes

Rule 1a. Use the apostrophe to show possession. To show possession with a singular noun, add an apostrophe plus the letter s.

Examples:

a woman's hat

the boss's wife

Mrs. Chang's house

Rule 1b. Many common nouns end in the letter s (lens, cactus, bus, etc.). So do a lot of proper nouns (Mr. Jones, Texas, Christmas). There are conflicting policies and theories about how to show possession when writing such nouns. There is no right answer; the best advice is to choose a formula and stay consistent.

Rule 1c. Some writers and editors add only an apostrophe to all nouns ending in s. And some add an apostrophe + s to every proper noun, be it Hastings's or Jones's.

One method, common in newspapers and magazines, is to add an apostrophe + s ('s) to common nouns ending in s, but only a stand-alone apostrophe to proper nouns ending in s.

Examples:

the class's hours

Mr. Jones' golf clubs

the canvas's size

Texas' weather

 

Care must be taken to place the apostrophe outside the word in question. For instance, if talking about a pen belonging to Mr. Hastings, many people would wrongly write Mr. Hasting's pen (his name is not Mr. Hasting).

Correct: Mr. Hastings' pen

Another widely used technique is to write the word as we would speak it. For example, since most people saying "Mr. Hastings' pen" would not pronounce an added s, we would write Mr. Hastings' pen with no added s. But most people would pronounce an added s in "Jones's," so we'd write it as we say it: Mr. Jones's golf clubs. This method explains the punctuation of for goodness' sake.

Rule 2a. Regular nouns are nouns that form their plurals by adding either the letter s or es (guy, guys; letter, letters; actress, actresses; etc.). To show plural possession, simply put an apostrophe after the s.

Correct: guys' night out (guy + s + apostrophe)

Incorrect: guy's night out (implies only one guy)

Correct: two actresses' roles (actress + es + apostrophe)

Incorrect: two actress's roles

Rule 2b. Do not use an apostrophe + s to make a regular noun plural.

Incorrect: Apostrophe's are confusing.

Correct: Apostrophes are confusing.

Incorrect: We've had many happy Christmas's.

Correct: We've had many happy Christmases.

In special cases, such as when forming a plural of a word that is not normally a noun, some writers add an apostrophe for clarity.

Example: Here are some do's and don'ts.

In that sentence, the verb do is used as a plural noun, and the apostrophe was added because the writer felt that dos was confusing. Not all writers agree; some see no problem with dos and don'ts.

However, with single lowercase letters, it is advisable to use apostrophes.

Example: My a's look like u's.

Imagine the confusion if you wrote that sentence without apostrophes. Readers would see as and us, and feel lost.

Rule 2c. English also has many irregular nouns (child, nucleus, tooth, etc.). These nouns become plural by changing their spelling, sometimes becoming quite different words. You may find it helpful to write out the entire irregular plural noun before adding an apostrophe or an apostrophe + s.

Incorrect: two childrens' hats

The plural is children, not childrens.

Correct: two children's hats (children + apostrophe + s)

Incorrect: the teeths' roots

Correct: the teeth's roots

Rule 2d. Things can get really confusing with the possessive plurals of proper names ending in s, such as Hastings and Jones.

If you're the guest of the Ford family—the Fords—you're the Fords' guest (Ford + s + apostrophe). But what if it's the Hastings family?

Most would call them the "Hastings." But that would refer to a family named "Hasting." If someone's name ends in s, we must add -es for the plural. The plural of Hastings is Hastingses. The members of the Jones family are the Joneses.

To show possession, add an apostrophe.

Incorrect: the Hastings' dog

Correct: the Hastingses' dog (Hastings + es + apostrophe)

Incorrect: the Jones' car

Correct: the Joneses' car

 

In serious writing, this rule must be followed no matter how strange or awkward the results.

Rule 2e. Never use an apostrophe to make a name plural.

Incorrect: The Wilson's are here.

Correct: The Wilsons are here.

Incorrect: We visited the Sanchez's.

Correct: We visited the Sanchezes.

Rule 3. With a singular compound noun (for example, mother-in-law), show possession with an apostrophe + s at the end of the word.

Example: my mother-in-law's hat

If the compound noun (e.g., brother-in-law) is to be made plural, form the plural first (brothers-in-law), and then use the apostrophe + s.

Example: my two brothers-in-law's hats

Rule 4a. If two people possess the same item, put the apostrophe + s after the second name only.

Example: Cesar and Maribel's home is constructed of redwood.

However, if one of the joint owners is written as a pronoun, use the possessive form for both.

Incorrect: Maribel and my home

Incorrect: Mine and Maribel's home

Correct: Maribel's and my home

Incorrect: he and Maribel's home

Incorrect: him and Maribel's home

Correct: his and Maribel's home

Incorrect: you and Maribel's home

Incorrect: yours and Maribel's home

Correct: Maribel's and your home

Note: As the above examples demonstrate, when one of the co-owners is written as a pronoun, use possessive adjectives (my, your, her, our, their). Avoid possessive pronouns (mine, yours, hers, ours, theirs) in such constructions.

It should be mentioned that compound possessives are often clunky as well as confusing. For instance, a picture of her and Cesar's house could refer to a photo of "her" in front of the house that Cesar owns or a photo of the house that she and Cesar co-own. Big difference. Such ambiguous sentences should just be rewritten.

Rule 4b. In cases of separate rather than joint possession, use the possessive form for both.

Examples:

Cesar's and Maribel's homes are both lovely.

They don't own the homes jointly.

Cesar and Maribel's homes are both lovely.

The homes belong to both of them.

Rule 5. Use an apostrophe with contractions. The apostrophe is placed where a letter or letters have been removed.

Examples: doesn't, it's, 'tis, can't, you'd, should've, rock 'n' roll, etc.

Incorrect: does'nt

Rule 6. There are various approaches to plurals for abbreviations, single letters, and numerals.

Many writers and editors prefer an apostrophe after single capitalized letters.

Example: I made straight A's.

With groups of two or more capital letters, apostrophes seem less necessary.

Examples:

There are two new MPs on the base.

He learned his ABCs.

She consulted with three M.D.s. OR She consulted with three M.D.'s.

Some write M.D.'s to give the s separation from the second period.

 Single-digit numbers are usually spelled out, but when they aren't, you are just as likely to see 2s and 3s as 2's and 3's. With double digits and above, many (but not everyone) regard the apostrophe as superfluous: I scored in the high 90s.

There are different schools of thought about years and decades. The following examples are all in widespread use:

Examples:

the 1990s

the 1990's

the '90s

the 90's

Awkward: the '90's

Rule 7. Amounts of time or money are sometimes used as possessive adjectives that require apostrophes.

Incorrect: three days leave

Correct: three days' leave

Incorrect: my two cents worth

Correct: my two cents' worth

Rule 8. The personal pronouns hers, ours, yours, theirs, its, whose, and the pronoun oneself never take an apostrophe.

Examples:

Correct: Feed a horse grain. It's better for its health.

Incorrect: Who's glasses are these?

Correct: Whose glasses are these?

Incorrect: Talking to one's self in public is odd.

Correct: Talking to oneself in public is odd.

Rule 9. When an apostrophe comes before a word or number, take care that it's truly an apostrophe (’) rather than a single quotation mark (‘).

Incorrect: ‘Twas the night before Christmas.

Correct: ’Twas the night before Christmas.

Incorrect: I voted in ‘08.

Correct: I voted in ’08.

NOTE

Serious writers avoid the word 'til as an alternative to until. The correct word is till, which is many centuries older than until.

Rule 10. Beware of false possessives, which often occur with nouns ending in s. Don't add apostrophes to noun-derived adjectives ending in s. Close analysis is the best guide.

Incorrect: We enjoyed the New Orleans' cuisine.

In the preceding sentence, the word the makes no sense unless New Orleans is being used as an adjective to describe cuisine. In English, nouns frequently become adjectives. Adjectives rarely if ever take apostrophes.

Incorrect: I like that Beatles' song.

Correct: I like that Beatles song.

Again, Beatles is an adjective, modifying song.

Incorrect: He's a United States' citizen.

Correct: He's a United States citizen.

Rule 11. Beware of nouns ending in y; do not show possession by changing the y to ies.

Correct: the company's policy

Incorrect: the companies policy

To show possession when a noun ending in y becomes plural, write ies'. Do not write y's.

Correct: three companies' policies

Incorrect: three company's policies

Exception: Names and other proper nouns ending in y become plural simply by adding an s. They do not form their plurals with an apostrophe, or by changing the y to ies.

Correct: The Flannerys are coming over.

Incorrect: The Flannery's are coming over.

Incorrect: The Flanneries are coming over.

Correct: The Flannerys' house was robbed.

Incorrect: The Flanneries' house was robbed.

Quotation Marks (‘...’/“... ... ..”)

Quotation marks are used for enclosing direct quotations of written or spoken words of others, or dialog said by characters in fiction.

They are also called quote marks or just quotes for short. The first of the pair is the opening or open quote. It curves to the right: “ ‘. The second one is the closing or close quote. It curves to the left: ’ ”.

Example:

Have you seen the music video for the song “Despacito”?

“Play with aggression” shouted the coach.

Your exact words were “get out of my room.”

“I'd never dreamed that I'd lose somebody like you”–this line from the song ‘Wicked Games’ always makes me sad.

Notes:

Commas and periods must always be placed inside the quotation marks, according to most citation systems.

Colons, as well as, semicolons, on the other hand, should be placed outside the quotation marks.

Note of interrogation and note of exclamation should be placed inside the quotation marks when they are part of the quoted elements. Seemingly, when the note of interrogation and exclamation are not a part of the quoted materials, they are not placed outside the quotation marks.

Rules Of Using Quotation Marks

The rules set forth in this section are customary in the United States. Great Britain and other countries in the Commonwealth of Nations are governed by quite different conventions. Nowhere is this more apparent than in Rule 4 in this section, a rule that has the advantage of being far simpler than Britain's and the disadvantage of being far less logical.

Rule 1. Use double quotation marks to set off a direct (word-for-word) quotation.

Correct: "I hope you will be here," he said.

Incorrect: He said that he "hoped I would be there." (The quotation marks are incorrect because hoped I would be there does not state the speaker's exact words.)

Rule 2a. Always capitalize the first word in a complete quotation, even midsentence.

Example: Lamar said, "The case is far from over, and we will win."

Rule 2b. Do not capitalize quoted material that continues a sentence.

Example: Lamar said that the case was "far from over" and that "we will win."

Rule 3a. Use commas to introduce or interrupt direct quotations.

Examples:

He said, "I don't care."

"Why," I asked, "don't you care?"

This rule is optional with one-word quotations.

Example: He said "Stop."

Rule 3b. If the quotation comes before he said, she wrote, they reported, Dana insisted, or a similar attribution, end the quoted material with a comma, even if it is only one word.

Examples:

"I don't care," he said.

"Stop," he said.

Rule 3c. If a quotation functions as a subject or object in a sentence, it might not need a comma.

Examples:

Is "I don't care" all you can say to me?

Saying "Stop the car" was a mistake.

Rule 4. Periods and commas ALWAYS go inside quotation marks.

Examples:

The sign said, "Walk." Then it said, "Don't Walk," then, "Walk," all within thirty seconds.

He yelled, "Hurry up."

Rule 5a. The placement of question marks with quotation marks follows logic. If a question is within the quoted material, a question mark should be placed inside the quotation marks.

Examples:

She asked, "Will you still be my friend?"

The question Will you still be my friend? is part of the quotation.

Do you agree with the saying, "All's fair in love and war"?

The question Do you agree with the saying? is outside the quotation.

Rule 5b. If a quoted question ends in midsentence, the question mark replaces a comma.

Example: "Will you still be my friend?" she asked.

Rule 6. Quotation marks are used for components, such as chapter titles in a book, individual episodes of a TV series, songs from a Broadway show or a music album, titles of articles or essays in print or online, and shorter works such as short stories and poems.

It is customary in American publishing to put the title of an entire composition in italics. Put the title of a short work—one that is or could be part of a larger undertaking—in quotation marks.

A "composition" is a creative, journalistic, or scholarly enterprise that is whole, complex, a thing unto itself. This includes books, movies, plays, TV shows, newspapers, magazines, websites, music albums, operas, musical theater, paintings, sculptures, and other works of art.

Example: Richard Burton performed the song "Camelot" in the 1960 Broadway musical Camelot.

Although the word is the same, "Camelot" the song takes quotation marks because it's part of a larger work—namely, a full-length show called Camelot.

Rule 7. Use single quotation marks for quotations within quotations.

Example: Dan said: "In a town outside Brisbane, I saw 'Tourists go home' written on a wall. But then someone told me, 'Pay it no mind, lad.' "

Note that the period goes inside both the single and double quotation marks. Also note that, as a courtesy, there is visible space between adjacent single and double quotation marks.

Rule 8a. Quotation marks are often used with technical terms, terms used in an unusual way, or other expressions that vary from standard usage.

Examples:

It's an oil-extraction method known as "fracking."

He did some "experimenting" in his college days.

I had a visit from my "friend" the tax man.

Rule 8b. Never use single quotation marks in sentences like the previous three.

Incorrect: I had a visit from my 'friend' the tax man.

The single quotation marks in the above sentence are intended to send a message to the reader that friend is being used in a special way: in this case, sarcastically. Avoid this invalid usage. Single quotation marks are valid only within a quotation, as per Rule 7, above.

Rule 9. When quoted material runs more than one paragraph, start each new paragraph with opening quotation marks, but do not use closing quotation marks until the end of the passage.

Example:

She wrote: "I don't paint anymore. For a while I thought it was just a phase that I'd get over.

"Now, I don't even try."

Parentheses and Brackets

Parentheses and brackets must never be used interchangeably.

Parentheses

Parentheses block off materials that interrupt the text to add information.

Example:

The parks (in Boston) are always crowded.

We provide a lot of services. (See our website)

We provide a lot of services (see our website).

Rule 1. Use parentheses to enclose information that clarifies or is used as an aside.

Example: He finally answered (after taking five minutes to think) that he did not understand the question.

If material in parentheses ends a sentence, the period goes after the parentheses.

Example: He gave me a nice bonus ($500).

Commas could have been used in the first example; a colon could have been used in the second example. The use of parentheses indicates that the writer considered the information less important—almost an afterthought.

Rule 2a. Periods go inside parentheses only if an entire sentence is inside the parentheses.

Example: Please read the analysis. (You'll be amazed.)

This is a rule with a lot of wiggle room. An entire sentence in parentheses is often acceptable without an enclosed period:

Example: Please read the analysis (you'll be amazed).

Rule 2b. Take care to punctuate correctly when punctuation is required both inside and outside parentheses.

Example: You are late (aren't you?).

Note the question mark within the parentheses. The period after the parentheses is necessary to bring the entire sentence to a close.

Rule 3. Parentheses, despite appearances, are not part of the subject.

Example: Joe (and his trusty mutt) was always welcome.

If this seems awkward, try rewriting the sentence:

Example: Joe (accompanied by his trusty mutt) was always welcome.

Rule 4. Commas are more likely to follow parentheses than precede them.

 

Incorrect: When he got home, (it was already dark outside) he fixed dinner.

Correct: When he got home (it was already dark outside), he fixed dinner.

Brackets

Brackets enclose the additional things in the quoted material. These additions are used for clarifications of the words or phrases of the quoted materials.

Example:

“It [the river] taught me all I ever knew about life.”

“Yeats used to love her [Maude Gonne], and he wrote many poems about her.”

“Every man[sic] must die one day.”

“I told [Spielberg] I wouldn’t do the movie.”

Brackets are also required to block off materials that fall within materials which are already enclosed by parentheses.

Brackets are far less common than parentheses, and they are only used in special cases. Brackets (like single quotation marks) are used exclusively within quoted material.

Rule 1. Brackets are interruptions. When we see them, we know they've been added by someone else. They are used to explain or comment on the quotation.

Examples:

"Four score and seven [today we'd say eighty-seven] years ago..."

"Bill shook hands with [his son] Al."

Rule 2. When quoting something that has a spelling or grammar mistake or presents material in a confusing way, insert the term sic in italics and enclose it in non-italic (unless the surrounding text is italic) brackets.

Sic ("thus" in Latin) is shorthand for, "This is exactly what the original material says."

Example: She wrote, "I would rather die then [sic] be seen wearing the same outfit as my sister."

The [sic] indicates that then was mistakenly used instead of than.

Rule 3. In formal writing, brackets are often used to maintain the integrity of both a quotation and the sentences others use it in.

Example: "[T]he better angels of our nature" gave a powerful ending to Lincoln's first inaugural address.

Ellipses

Definition

An ellipsis (plural: ellipses) is a punctuation mark consisting of three dots.

Use an ellipsis when omitting a word, phrase, line, paragraph, or more from a quoted passage. Ellipses save space or remove material that is less relevant. They are useful in getting right to the point without delay or distraction:

Full quotation: "Today, after hours of careful thought, we vetoed the bill."

With ellipsis: "Today … we vetoed the bill."

Although ellipses are used in many ways, the three-dot method is the simplest. Newspapers, magazines, and books of fiction and nonfiction use various approaches that they find suitable.

Some writers and editors feel that no spaces are necessary.

Example: I don't know…I'm not sure.

Others enclose the ellipsis with a space on each side.

Example: I don't know … I'm not sure.

Still others put a space either directly before or directly after the ellipsis.

Examples:

I don't know …I'm not sure.

I don't know… I'm not sure.

A four-dot method and an even more rigorous method used in legal works require fuller explanations that can be found in other reference books.

Rule 1. Many writers use an ellipsis whether the omission occurs at the beginning of a sentence, in the middle of a sentence, or between sentences.

A common way to delete the beginning of a sentence is to follow the opening quotation mark with an ellipsis, plus a bracketed capital letter:

Example: "… [A]fter hours of careful thought, we vetoed the bill."

Other writers omit the ellipsis in such cases, feeling the bracketed capital letter gets the point across.

For more on brackets, see Parentheses and Brackets.

Rule 2. Ellipses can express hesitation, changes of mood, suspense, or thoughts trailing off. Writers also use ellipses to indicate a pause or wavering in an otherwise straightforward sentence.

Examples:

I don't know … I'm not sure.

Pride is one thing, but what happens if she …?

He said, "I … really don't … understand this."

Exclamation Points [ Marks ] ! 

Exclamation Point (or Exclamation Mark) The exclamation point, also called an exclamation mark, is a punctuation mark that goes at the end of certain sentences. It's less common than the period or question mark, but it's very easy to use.

"Exclamation mark" is a part of British English, whereas "exclamation point" is a part of American English.

An exclamatory sentence makes a statement that conveys strong emotion or excitement. Placing that tiny stripe above a period at the end of a sentence can really rock the boat! For example:

Exclamatory Sentence Examples

Have you ever had a text conversation go something like that? Your friend is trying to convey excitement and instead of throwing in some emojis, she uses exclamation marks. No big deal, but it can come across as a different kind of emotion, like anger or frustration.

In truth, exclamation marks are like sugar. Sometimes they can be too much. So, be careful if you just mean to say, "I need some coffee," rather than "I need some coffee!" the next time you're contemplating this magical bean.

Your tone, the emphasis you place on certain words, and your inflection can all change the meaning - and possibly the urgency - of your sentence.

Examples

I got the concert tickets!"

"Ugh! Why are you yelling at me?"

"I'm not!"

, I will marry you!

Oh! That is a gorgeous, new dress.

Wow! I can't believe I ran into you here.

No! I did not intend to lock myself out of the house.

Stop! I really don't want to get wet. ...

The cat kept saying meow! loudly and I couldn't sleep.

Let's take a look at some exclamatory sentence examples. We've broken them up into their most Common Categories.

Exclamatory Sentence Examples

Exclamatory Sentences That Express Strong Emotion:

Happy birthday, Amy!

Thank you, Sheldon!

I hate you!

Ice cream sundaes are my favorite!

Exclamatory sentences are so powerful they can stand alone.

For example:

Wow, I really love you!

Fantastic, let's go!

In these instances, you don't have to divide the sentiment into two separate sentences. Instead, insert a comma where the speaker would naturally pause and then finish off with that indicator of excitement, the exclamation mark.

Exclamatory Sentences That Begin with "What:"

What a lovely bouquet of flowers!

What a cute puppy!

What an ugly bug!

What a happy ending!

Exclamatory Sentences That Begin with "How:"

How bright they've grown in the sunlight!

How well he listens!

How slow they crawl!

How fast you ran!

Exclamatory Sentences Containing "So:"

That birthday cake was so good!

Sheldon's gift was so amazing!

Eugh, that bug is so ugly!

I'm so mad right now!

Exclamatory Sentences Containing "Such:"

He's such a kind soul!

That's such a gorgeous ring!

Your puppy is such a cutie!

You're such a liar!

Avoid Exclamations in Academic Writing

Exclamatory sentences don't really have a place in academic writing or reports. Short of quoting someone else, they are to be avoided. Academic papers are going to be filled with declarative sentences, which make a statement, or interrogative sentences, which pose a question.

Declarative sentences relay information, plain and simple. They're always punctuated by a period. Interrogative sentences ask questions and they're punctuated by a question mark.

An imperative sentence is also not used much in academic writing, but if you see it in other writing it may be confused with an exclamatory sentence as it can also end with an exclamation point. The difference to remember is that an exclamatory sentence will always express heightened emotion.

Use With Caution

In the end, it's best to leave exclamatory sentences for the lighter side of life. It's okay to create a casual blog post with an exclamatory sentence or two. A script for an episode of Friends will be full of exclamatory sentences - and that's why we loved it so much. However, a paper focusing on the benefits of herbal medicine should be far less driven by exclamations. Let your writing speak for itself. Choose clear, concise tones and avoid the urge to place that stripe above your periods (!).

How many exclamation points is too many?

In formal writing (such as writing essays and reports), it is improper to use more than one exclamation mark. Using more than one is seen as informal.

What do 2 exclamation marks mean?

The exclamation mark, !, also sometimes referred to as the exclamation point, especially in American English, is a punctuation mark usually used after an interjection or exclamation to indicate strong feelings or high volume, or to show emphasis.

Meaning of ‼ Double Exclamation Mark Emoji

Double Exclamation Mark emoji is two exclamation points next to each other. Exclamation points are used to express shock or surprise, but two exclamation points show an even more extreme form of shock that one exclamation point is just not enough to express.

What do 3 exclamation marks mean?

The three exclamation points are used to end a sentence, which may or may not be the last one in a text. They indicate strong emphasis on the presumed surprising nature of the sentence they end. Some critics seem to have strong personal objections to almost any use of emphasis in writing, which I fail to understand.

Question Mark ?

What is Question Mark?

A question mark (?) is a punctuation symbol placed at the end of a sentence or phrase to indicate a direct question, as in: She asked, "Are you happy to be home?" The question mark is also called an interrogation point, note of interrogation, or question point.

The question mark ? (also known as interrogation point, query, or eroteme in journalism) is a punctuation mark that indicates an interrogative clause or phrase in many languages. The question mark is not used for indirect questions. The question mark glyph is also often used in place of missing or unknown data.

1) Use a question mark when you are trying to get information. This type of sentence is called an interrogative sentence.

Many interrogative sentences start with question words such as who, what, when, where, why or how and end with a question mark.

Examples:

Where is the gas station?

Who is your teacher?

Why did you stop here?

How did you do that?

What color is the shirt?

When will you arrive?

Interrogative sentences can also start with forms of the words "do" and "be."

Examples:

Did they go to the party?

Does he like apples?

Do you know her name?

Are you there?

Is she the teacher?

2. Use a question mark at the end of a sentence when you turn a statement into a question to get a specific answer. This type of question is used when the speaker is hoping for a certain answer.

Examples:  

You promise to call me every day?

See you there at 8:00 tonight?

3. Use a question mark at the end of a tag question.

A tag is a word or phrase that is added to a sentence.

How are question marks used?

Question marks are used in both formal and non-formal writing and in cases where direct and indirect questions are being asked. ... Placing a question mark at the end of a sentence that is not explicitly asking a question will instantly make it an awkward sentence.

What do 2 question marks mean?

If double question marks are uses it is to emphasize something in return, usually from the shock of the previous thing said. For example, if I said: 'My dog just died' (sad, but used for example...) Someone may reply. 'Really??

Rules Of Question Mark

Can you ask a question without question mark?

Rule 1a Some sentences are statements—or demands—in the form of a question. They are called rhetorical questions because they don't require or expect an answer. Many should be written without question marks.

Rule 1b. Use a question mark only after a direct question.

Correct: Will you go with me?

Incorrect: I'm asking if you will go with me?

Rule 2a. A question mark replaces a period at the end of a sentence.

Incorrect: Will you go with me?.

Rule 2b. Because of Rule 2a, capitalize the word that follows a question mark.

Some writers choose to overlook this rule in special cases.

Example: Will you go with me? with Joe? with anyone?

Rule 3a. Avoid the common trap of using question marks with indirect questions, which are statements that contain questions. Use a period after an indirect question.

Incorrect: I wonder if he would go with me?

Correct:

I wonder if he would go with me.

OR

I wonder: Would he go with me?

Rule 3b. Some sentences are statements—or demands—in the form of a question. They are called rhetorical questions because they don't require or expect an answer. Many should be written without question marks.

Examples:

Why don't you take a break.

Would you kids knock it off.

What wouldn't I do for you!

Rule 4. Use a question mark when a sentence is half statement and half question.

Example: You do care, don't you?

Rule 5a. The placement of question marks with quotation marks follows logic. If a question is within the quoted material, a question mark should be placed inside the quotation marks.

Examples:

She asked, "Will you still be my friend?"

The question Will you still be my friend? is part of the quotation.

Do you agree with the saying, "All's fair in love and war"?

The question Do you agree with the saying? is outside the quotation.

Rule 5b. If a quoted question ends in midsentence, the question mark replaces a comma.

Example: "Will you still be my friend?" she asked.

Slashes

Despite its popularity, the slash (/), technically known as a virgule, is frowned upon by purists. Other than to indicate dates (9/11/2001) or to separate lines of poetry ("Celery, raw / Develops the jaw"), it has few defensible uses.

Usually a hyphen, or in some cases the word or, will suffice. Instead of writing the novelist/poet Eve Jones, make it the novelist-poet Eve Jones. Rather than available to any man/woman who is qualified, make it any man or woman.

The slash has always been a handy tool for taking notes and writing rough outlines. Substituting w/o for without, y/o for years old, and b/c for because can save valuable time and space.

However, most slashes can—and should—be removed from a final draft. Writers should replace a construction like any man/woman with any man or woman in their finished work.

"The virgule is a mark that doesn't appear much in first-rate writing," says Bryan A. Garner in A Dictionary of Modern American Usage. "Use it as a last resort."

Run-ons - Comma Splices - Fused Sentences

Run-ons, comma splices, and fused sentences are all names given to compound sentences that are not punctuated correctly.

Run-on sentences

A run-on sentence occurs when two or more independent clauses (also known as complete sentences) are connected improperly. A comma splice occurs when two independent clauses are joined with just a comma.

Fused Sentence

A fused sentence is a run-on sentence in which sentences have been joined together with no punctuation between them . A run-on-sentence is two or more complete sentences run together as one . Because they do not show where one idea ends and another one begins , run-on-sentences can confuse the reader . There are two kinds of run-on-sentences .In the first kind , called 1- ] a fused sentence , the sentence have no punctuation at all between them .

Example

Schools in the Middle Ages were different from ours students usually did not have books . [run-on]

Schools in the Middle Ages were different from ours . Students usually did not have books . [Correct]

2- ] Comma Splice

In this other kind or run-on , the writer links together sentences with only a comma to separate them from one another .

Example

Schools today have books for every student , many schools also have televisions and computers . [run-on]

Schools today have books for every student . Many schools also have televisions and computers .

Revising Run-on Sentences

There are several ways you can revise run-on sentences .

1- ] You can make two separate sentences .

2- ]  If the two sentences are equal to one another in importance , you can make a compound sentence by a comma and a coordinating conjunction such as and , but , or .

Example

Canada has ten provinces each province has its own government . [ fused ]

Canada has ten provinces , each province has its own government . [ comma splice ]

Canada has ten provinces , and each province has its own government .

3- ] You can make a compound sentence using a semicolon and a word such as ‘therefore , instead , meanwhile , still , also , nevertheless , however’ . These words are called ‘ conjunctive adverbs’ .

Before you join two sentences in a compound sentence , make sure that the ideas in the sentences are closely related to one another . If you link unrelated ideas , you may confuse your reader .

Example

Canada is almost four million square miles in size , and I hope to visit it my relatives there someday. [ unrelated ]

Canada is almost four million square miles in size , but most of its people live on a small strip of

land along the southern border .

How do you identify a run on sentence?

The best way to find a run-on sentence is to determine whether there is more than one independent clause in the same sentence without punctuation. If there are two subjects (who or what the sentence is about) or a subject and its pronoun (he, she, it, they etc.)

What are the 5 rules to fix a run on sentence?

There are five ways to correct run-on sentences.

Make two separate sentences.

Use a semicolon to separate the independent clauses.

Use a comma and a coordination conjunction.

Use a semicolon, conjunctive adverb, and comma.

Use a subordinate conjunction with one of the clauses.

The best way to avoid such errors is to punctuate compound sentences correctly by using one or the other of these rules.

1. Join the two independent clauses with one of the coordinating conjunctions (and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet), and use a comma before the connecting word.

_________________________, and _________________________.

He enjoys walking through the country, and he often goes backpacking on his vacations.

2. When you do not have a connecting word (or when you use a connecting word other than and, but, for, or nor, so, or yet between the two independent clauses) use a semicolon (;).

__________________________;_____________________________.

He often watched TV when there were only reruns; she preferred to read instead.

or

__________________________; however,____________________.

He often watched TV when there were only reruns; however, she preferred to read instead.

So, run-ons and fused sentences are terms describing two independent clauses that are joined together with no connecting word or punctuation to separate the clauses.

INCORRECT: They weren't dangerous criminals they were detectives in disguise.

CORRECT: They weren't dangerous criminals; they were detectives in disguise.

INCORRECT: I didn't know which job I wanted I was too confused to decide.

CORRECT: I didn't know which job I wanted, and I was too confused to decide.

Why are run on sentences bad?

The problem with run-on sentences is that they're hard to understand. Conjunctions, semicolons, and periods act as signposts within a sentence to help readers follow what the writer is saying. When these signposts are absent, it's likely that readers will need to backtrack and reread to make sense of the sentence.

Why are run on sentences used?

A run-on sentence is a combination of two independent clauses, joined together without a conjunction or punctuation mark. Both of these independent clauses form a complete sense or thought; however, when they group together, they need proper punctuation for clarity.

Run-on Sentences - Exercise

Instructions

Each sentence below is a run-on. Choose the answer that corrects the run-on so that the run-on becomes a complete sentence.

If you accidentally click on the wrong button, simply click on the button you meant to select.

Now proceed to the next sentence and continue in the same manner until you have finished all 10 sentences.

Questions

1.) My academic advisor told me not to take 18 credit hours for the fall semester I regret I didn't listen to her.

a.) My academic advisor told me not to take 18 credit hours this semester, and now I regret not having listened to her.

b.) When my academic advisor told me not to take 18 credit hours this semester, and I now regret not having listened to her.

c.) My academic advisor told me not to take 18 credit hours this semester, now I regret that I did not listen to her.

2.) My cat was upset all day he didn't get canned food for breakfast.

a.) My can was upset all day. Because he did not get canned food for breakfast.

b.) My cat was upset all day because he did not get canned food for breakfast.

c.) Because my cat was upset today and did not get canned food for breakfast.

3.) The student fell asleep in class everyone thought this was rude behavior.

a.) The student fell asleep in class, and everyone thought this was rude behavior.

b.) The student was falling asleep in class, and although everyone thought this was rude behavior.

c.) Even though the student fell asleep in class, and everyone thought this was rude behavior.

4.) Ron was chopping the vegetables Ginny was boiling the rice.

a.) Ron was chopping the vegetables, and Ginny was boiling the rice.

b.) When Ron was chopping the vegetables and Ginny was boiling the rice.

c.) Ron was chopping vegetables and while Ginny was boiling the rice.

5.) When we wanted to drive to the park we followed the direction from our neighbors we ended up in Canada instead.

a.) When we wanted to drive to the park, we followed the directions we received from our neighbors and ended up in Canada instead.

b.) We wanted to drive to the park as we followed the directions we received from our neighbors we ended up in Canada.

c.) Because we wanted to drive to the park and got wrong directions and ended up in Canada.

6.) Peggy is a writing instructor she knows how to write a brilliant essay.

a.) Because Peggy is a writing instructor and knows how to write a brilliant essay.

b.) Peggy who is a writing instructor and knows how to write an essay.

c.) Peggy is a writing instructor. She knows how to write a brilliant essay.

7.) I prefer walking riding the bike hurts my knees.

a.) I prefer walking. So riding the bike hurts my knees.

b.) I prefer walking for riding the bike hurts my knees.

c.) Since riding the bike hurts my knees and I prefer walking.

8.) The anatomy test was very hard Joann got an A.

a.) Just as Joann got an A in the very hard anatomy test.

b.) Because the anatomy test was hard, and Joann got an A.

c.) Although the anatomy test was very hard, Joann got an A.

9.) The ability to write a good essay is essential you need to take writing intensive English classes.

a.) Due to the fact that the ability to write good essays is essential and you need to take writing intensive English classes.

b.) You need to take writing intensive English classes due to the fact that the ability to write a good essay is essential.

c.) Since you need to take writing intensive classes, and the ability to write a good essay is essential.

10.) My friend is in jail, but he is not a dangerous criminal he is an undercover agent.

a.) Because my friend is an undercover agent who is in jail right now and not a dangerous criminal.

b.) My friend who is in jail right now is not a dangerous criminal, but an undercover agent.

c.) My friend is in jail because he is an undercover agent he is not a dangerous criminal.