American Division Literature [ 17 ]

17- ] American Division Literature .

Fiction .

The Shorter Narratives .

They require tighter , more economical structures . Some shorter genres include :

1-] The Tale : that centers on an outcome . Look to “ O Henry” for some example tales .

2-] The Tall Tale :  that centers on the exaggerated feats of [ generally ] American heroes .Examples include such characters as Paul Bunyan and Davy Crockett [although some tall tales have been written in other countries ].

3-] The Fable : that centers on a moral . The moral is often stated in an epigram put forth by the writer or one of the characters at the end [ called a beast fable when the characters in the fable are talking animals ] . Examples include the famous fables of Aesop .

4-]The Folk Tale :  that is a narrative that originally was transmitted orally.  Elements of the folk tale are commonly found in tall tales and fables .

5-] The Parable : that teaches a lesson by using very tightly structured allegory . As pointed out by Professor William Harmon and the late C. Hugh Holman of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in “ A Handbook to Literature [ Macmillan Publishing Company , 1992 ] , The most famous parables are those of Jesus Christ [ examples include the “ Prodigal Son ,” the “ Parable of the Sowers" , and the “ Parable of the Workers” ] .

6-] The Legend : that relates the life of the hero – people whose lives are of legendary “ proportions” .

7-] The Myth : that once was believed to be true , but is now accepted as fiction.  These stories are generally of anonymous origin and include supernatural elements .

American Division Literature [ 16 ]

16- ] American Division Literature .

Chapter Three.

Fiction .

Fiction is an imaginative literary narrative that can be in the form of prose , poetry or drama . Most prose fiction falls into one of several types based primarily on length .

1-] Novel : The first English novel was Pamela [Virtue Rewarded ] by Samuel Richardson .

2-] Novelette : Shorter than the novel , sometimes called a short novel . It is more tightly structured . It generally consists of about  15.000 to 50.000 words.

3-] Short Story ; Ranges from 500 [ in the short story ] to 15.000 words . It is very tightly structured with a formal development .

4-] Anecdote : A narrative of a single episode [ an incident ] . Once referring simply to gossip , today anecdote refers to any episodic narrative .

A narrative plot might look like this :

Climax

[ The “ high point” when you know how conflict will be resolved ]

Dénouement

Complication                                          [ Resolution of conflict ]

[ Developing conflict ] 

                          

Exposition

[ Introduction of characters and setting ]

Genres .

1-] Picaresque :

Characteristics :  1-] Autobiographical – first person narrative . 2-] A rascal as the main character who does not change . 3-] Adventurous episodes . 4-] The main character lives by wits . 5-] Generally lacks formal structure . 6-] The main character is called a picaroon [ picaro ] . Ex. “ The Adventures of Tom Sawyer” by Mark Twain / “ Jonathan Wild” by Henry fielding / “ Moll Flanders” by Daniel Defoe .

2-] Stream of Consciousness :

Characteristics :  1-] Major technique : interior monologue . 2-] Reports the nonverbalized flow of thoughts of the character [ s ] . 3-] Thoughts are erratic and illogical . 4-] Introspection . 5-] Focus : inner consciousness .

As you investigate the stream of consciousness novels , try to identify the influence of Freudian psychology [ school of psycho-analysis ] at work in the more modern examples . Examples of stream of consciousness are in the writings of James Joyce , Virginia Woolf and Laurence Sterne .

3-] Bildungs Romance :

Characteristics : 1-] German for “ novel of formation.” 2-] Once called “ apprenticeship novel .” 3-] Called “ Künstler roman”when the protagonist is an artist or writer . Ex. James Joyce’s “ Portrait of The Artist As a Young Man”  and Dicken’s “ Great Expectations .”

4-] Regional :

Characteristics :  Setting [ including regional dialogues ] has significant impact on character and on plot structure . Ex. Some of the works of William Faulkner fit this genre . Mark Twain and other writers combine the regional novel with other forms .

5-] Social :

Characteristics : 1-] Plot centers on social environment . 2-] Plot incorporates persuasive language. 3-] It calls for social reform . The Lost Generation during the decade after World War 1 ended , produced man social novelists .

Other Genres .

1-] Detective : also called crime stories , murder mysteries and “ who units”.

2-] The plot focuses on solving a crime , often murder . Ex. The works of the writers Charlock Holmes , Sir Arthur Conan Doyle and Agatha Christie .

2-] Psychological : 1-] The plot tells not only what happens , but also why it happens , concentrating on motivation .

3-] Problem : 1-] The plot centers on solving a problem . A-] Novels of sensibility :The plot focuses on emotion . B-] Character : The plot focuses on character . C-] Manners : The plot focuses on a social class . D-] Incident : The plot focuses on episodes . E-] The Soil : The plot focuses on rural regional struggle to survive .

4-] Sociological :  A type of problem novel that purports to have the solutions for specified problems in society .

5-] Propaganda :  The plot is subordinated to the role of a vehicle to put forth a particular doctrine .

6-] Western : Dime novels are set in the American West .

7-] Gothic :  The plot centers on ghostly castles , medieval settings and romantic knights bound by chivalry .

8- ] Epistolary : The plot is carried out through a series of letters between or among the characters .Ex . Claressa .

9-] Science Fiction :  The plot centers on science fantasy such as time machines , aliens or mutants [ G. H . Wells “ Time Machine .”

10-] Suspense :  also called “ edge-of-your-seat” stories . The plot keeps the reader in a somewhat sustained sense of suspense or anticipation . In serials in which there is a break in the plot between episodes , the reader or viewer may be left at a “ cliff-hanger” – a point at which the suspense level is high , thus encouraging the reader or viewer to continue the story to see what happens .  A famous television “ cliff-hanger” is the “Who Shot  j . R ?” episode in the American soap opera Dallas .

11-]Utopia : The plot depends upon a fictional perfect world . [ Contrasted with dystopia , in which the fictional world is far less than perfect as in Orwell’s 1984 ] .

As previously mentioned writers often blend elements [ including the structure , technique and subject matter ] of more than one genre to create the desired effects , and to fulfill their purposes . 

American Division Literature [ 15 ]

15- ] American Division Literature .

Poetry .

Forms From France .

1-] Rondeau : a poem of 15 lines in three stanzas . Lines 9 and 15 begin a refrain . The rhyme scheme is a a b ab / a a b a  / a a b b c c / . Eight-syllable lines . Alternative forms of rondeau have 12 lines [ a b b a / a b c / a b b a c] and the rondeau redouble [ six quatrains of a b a b rhyme scheme , lines 1 – 4 form the last lines of quatrains 2, 3 , 4 and 5 ] .

2-] Villanelle; a poem of 19 lines . Lines 6,12 1nd 18 repeat line 1 . Lines 9 , 15 abd 19 repeat line 3 . The rhyme scheme is a b a / a b a  aba  / a b a  a b a / a b a a / . Ex . is “ Your  Best For The Test .”

3-] Triolet : a poem of eight lines . Lines 7 and 8 repeat lines 1 and 2 . Line 4 repeats line 1 . The rhyme scheme is a b / a a / ab a b / . Ex of Triolet by W.E . Henley .

 Sound Effects .

Tone in a poem is also a product of sound effects [ their uses and tonal qualities ] . Here are a few of the more commonly found sound effects .

1-] Onomatopoeia : It refers to words that imitate sounds such as “ hiss and  buzz . It refers to words , lines and passages whose sound , size , movement and overall effect denote the sense or meaning . The sounds work together to carry meaning . Ex .Tennyson’s “ The Princess /Come Down , O Maid – 1847]

    “ …..The moan of doves in immemorial elms ,

       And murmuring of innumerable bees .

2-] Phonic echo devices :

There are major devices in which sound is repeated or “ echoes” .

A-] Alliteration : The initial consonant or consonant cluster sounds in stressed syllables are repeated [ generally in successive or closely associated  stressed syllables ] .

Ex.         Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers .

               She sells sea-shells by the sea-shore .

B-] Assonance : the same [ or similar ] vowel sounds are repeated in nearby words [ usually in stressed syllables ] . Assonance repeats only the vowel sounds and ends with different consonant sounds .

Ex.         I wish I were where Helen lies ,

              Night and day on me she cries ,

              O that I were where Helen lies ,

                      On fair Kirconnell lea !

“ I” and “ night” both contain the long “ ai” sound . This assonance is emphasized in the rhyme of “ lie” with “ cries .”

C-] Consonance :  final consonant sounds of stressed syllables are repeated while the preceding vowels are different . Consonance is often used in conjunction with alliteration [ as in reader and rider ] , however , initial alliteration is not always a factor [ as in lean , torn ] . The aural appeal can be heard in George Wither’s use of consonance in the last stanza of “ Shall I Wasting in Despair” in which d , r , v , l and t are repeated

                       Great  , or good or kind or fair

                       I wil ne’er the more despair

                       If she love me , this believe

                       I will die , ere she shall grieve .

                       If she slight me when I woo ,

                       I can scorn , and let her go .

                                 For , if she be not for me .

                       What care I for whom she be ?

D-] Cacophony And Dissonance :

Both  terms refer to harshness of sounds that produce an unpleasant or unsettling tone . A sound has dissonance when it is harsh , inharmonious or discordant with the sounds and the rhythm that surround it . A sound has cacophony when it is simply harsh in and of itself , regardless of the sounds and rhythms that surround it . Cacophony is often an accident , dissonance on the other hand [ discordance with surrounding sounds and rhythms ] can be very deliberate .Note the conscious use  of dissonance in “ Broken-Down Car” by C. Myers – Shaffer. 

 A budget bruised , bent blistered broken relic needin-fixin                             Dented dimpleddinges from fender benders galore-grief over grime and time .

------------------

Courage : There goes cash on four tires .

Frame and bumpers look in good – not me still under hood .

------------------

Clank….grind….bang…..grime grating against mental and skin .

-----------------

Start and stop motor again – not again , sorry mess

Headin’ for the Tunk-heap next , I guess

Cacophony , harsh sounds [ words ] that are unpleasant in and of themselves , can result from many things , such as too many unvoiced plosives in a poem . Some poets feel that overuse of “ s”or “ sh” sounds have a cacophonic effect and try to avoid them .

E-] Euphony : It refers to sounds that are pleasing and easy to pronounce , producing a pleasant tone . Sounds exhibiting euphony [ the opposite of cacophony ] generally contain more vowel sounds [ thought to have more        “ sonority” or resonance  than consonants and to cause more vibration or       “ voicing” sounds ] and lean toward the liquids , nasals and semi-vowels [ l , m , n , r , v , w ] with the voiced consonants being heard as “ softer” [ b , d , g , v , z ] and the unvoiced consonants as “ harsher” [ p , t , k , f , s ] . Poetry exhibiting euphony tends also to avoid difficult-to – pronounce sound combinations and to stress sound patterns that include repetitions .

American Division Literature [ 14 ]

14- ] American Division Literature .

Poetry 

Visual Poems .

The physical shape affects meaning .

1-] Shaped verse [ Renaissance emblem poetry ]

The words are shaped to fit meaning .

The Altar .  By : George Herbert

A broken ALTAR ,Lord , Thy servant rears  ,

Made of a HEART , and cemented with tears ;

        Whose parts are as Thy and did frame ;

No work man’s tool hath touched the same .

                           A HEAT alone

                           Is such a stone

                           As nothing but

                           Thy power doth cut .

                          Where fore each part

                           Of my hard HEART

                           Meets in this frame

                           To praise Thy name :

         That , if I chance to hold my peace ,

These stones to praise Thee may not cease .

   O , let Thy blessed SACRIFICE be mine ,

        And sanctify this ALTAR to be Thine .

The words here in the poem are shaped in writing to fit the altar in shape .

Satire .

Poems that embody a satiric outlook . Formal verse satire sometimes didactic in tone , satirizes some vice .

Horatian satire [ gentle ridicule ] is in the poetry of W. H. Auden . Juvenalian satire is very formal , very cutting , whereas Menippean satire uses plot , dialogue and a mixture of prose and verse .

An example of satire is Jonathan Swift , well known for his ability to satirize who penned “ A Satirical Elegy” in 1722 “ On the Death of a Later Famous General” John Churchill – a member of royalty character [ Duke of Marlborough ] and an English military hero whose character was eventually called into question .

Invective poems :  Personal attacks or lampoons [ satires against individuals ] .

Panegyric poems :  Poems that praise someone or something , especially public figures and institutions .

Epideictic poetry :  Special occasion poems

Encomiums are poems [ often in the form of odes ] that eulogize .

Epithalamiums  are poems [ that can be song ] that celebrate a wedding .

Complaint :  A lyric poem [ usually monologue ] in which the poet complains about the state of the world , his individual situation or his mistress .

An example is “ A Complaint by Night” by Henry Howard , Earl of Surrey .

Confessional poems : A contemporary form that deals with ver private matters .

Palinode :  A poem or song that retracts a previous work , often retracting an ode .

Metaphysical poetry :  Philosophical poetry written in the seventeenth century as a revolt against Elizabethan love poetry characterized by :

1] The metaphysical conceit . 2- ] Psychological analysis . 3-] Subjects : love and religion . 4-] Use of the shocking – simple diction . 5-] Form : an argument. 6-] Style : rough .

A type of metaphysical poetry is the meditative poem ,written with Renaissance poetic techniques about religious topics for religious ceremonies . An example of the metaphysical poets is John Donne .

American Division Literature [ 13 ]

13- ] American Division Literature .

Poetry .

Light Verse .

Poems intended to be humorous or witty . Types of light verse include :

1-] Vers de societe :  Those are characterized by :

Brief length , playful mood , social relationships as the subject , sophisticated style and terse tone [ brisk and generally rhymed rhythm ] .

2-] Parody :   A comic or satiric imitation of a more serious work that ridicules a work , an author or a style .

A parody can be fun to write , especially when the original poem has a very pronounced rhythm or mood . Edgar Allan Poe’s “ The Raven” has such a distinctive rhythm pattern that it works well in parody .

Ex . Here is the first stanza of the original poem :

Once upon a midnight dreamy , while I pondered , weak and weary .

Over many acquaint and curious volume of forgotten lore ,

While I nodded , nearly napping , suddenly there came a tapping .

As of some one gently rapping , rapping at my chamber door .

“Tis some visitor,” I muttered , “ tapping at my chamber door –

     Only this and nothing more .

Here is a parody of the preceding stanza .

Once upon a schoolday dreary , while I studied , weak and weary .

Over many acquaint and curious volume of literature .

Feeling grisly , grim and grumbling , suddenly there came a rumbling .

A gruesome gripping kind of rumbling , rumbling that was premature .

“Tiiiiis my stomach ,” then I muttered , “ rumbling here so premature –

           Candy bars will be the cure .

3-] Limerick :  A poem of five anapestic lines with an aabba rhyme scheme . Lines 1,2 and 5 are trimeter , lines 3 and 4 are dimeter . The limerick is a form of nonsense verse .

x  x     /        x   x       /         x   x    /

I sat next / to the Duch / ess at tea .                         a

 x  x        /      x x       /          x     x       /

It was just / as I thought / it would be .                   a

   X      /      x      x         x    x

Her rumblings ab / dominal .                                  b

   x         /    x    x        /   x  x

Were simply phe / nomenal .                                     b

   x     /     x     x          /          x  x      /

And ev / ery one thought / it was me .                         a

4-] Occasional Verse :  Genrally written for specific occasions , such as coronations , birthdays , and deaths . For official occasions , the English poet laureate is expected to write the occasional poem . An often cited occasional poem was written in 1681 by Andrew Marvell . The poem “ An Horatian Ode Upon Cromwell’s Return From Ireland ,” is based upon Cromwell’s return to England in 1650 , at which time he prepared to go to battle against the Scots .

5-] Epigrams :  They are short poems that are characteristically witty with a twist in the thought at the end . An epigram , however , can also be defined as simply a clever saying used for a variety of purposes including to eulogize , to compliment or to satirize .

This anonymous Latin epigram sums up the point .

6-] Epitaph :  Generally a short poem { an epigram ] intended for a tombstone [ or as if for carving on a tombstone . The epitaph may be comic .

My Own Epitaph . By : John Gay

Life is a jest ; and all things show it .

I thought so once ; but now I know it .

An Epitaph Upon A Young Married Couple .

Dead And Buried Together .  By : Richard Crashaw

To these , whom death again did wed ,

This grave is their second marriage-bed .

For thought the hand of fate could force

“ Twixt soul and body a divorce , It could not sunder man and wife

Cause they both livéd but one life .

Peace , good reader , Do not weep

Peace , the lovers are asleep

They sweet turtles , folded lie

In the last knot love could tie .

And though they lie as they were dead ,

Their pillow stone , their sheets of lead ,

( Pillow hard , and sheets not warm )

Love made the bed ; they’ll take no harm ;

Let them sleep , let them sleep on .

Till this stormy night be gone ,

Till th’eternal morrow dawn ;

Then the curtains will be drawn

And they wake into a light ,

Whose day shall never die in night .

7-] Epigraph [ motto ] :  The quotation or inscription on a statue , on a coin , before chapter headings , and on title pages of books .

8-] Clerihew  Named after the writer of detective fiction [ Edmund Clerihew Bentley ] .

American Division Literature [ 12 ]

12- ] English Division Literature .

Poetry .

Poems Set To Music .

1-] Hymns [ Religious Songs ] :

Hymns have appeared in both rhymed and unrhymed qualitative verse , as well as in prose .

2-] Songs: Lyric poems meant to be sung . Songs are typically short and emotional on topics that range from love to hatred , dancing to mourning , work to play .

Some works labelled as songs , however , can not actually be sung , such as “ The Love  Song of J . Alfred Prufrock” by T.S. Eliot .

Folk Songs : are those of unknown authorship .

3-] Ballads :  Narrative songs that may be sung or simply recited . The ballad tradition can be found worldwide .

Characteristics of the ballad :

1-] Theme :  Courage or love . 2-] Little description or characterization .                3-] Incremental repetition  [ repetition of words , lines or phrases for effect ] .

Form of Ballad

The ballad stanza : usually iambic foot in four lines [ quatrain  ] with an aab  rhyme scheme [ sometimes based on approximate rhyme or assonance and consonance ].                                                                                                               --Lines 1 and 3 have four accented syllables : lines 2 and 4 have three accented syllables .                                                                                                                 

- Use of refrain [ repetition of words , phrases or lines at intervals ] .

- Sometimes has a concluding or  summary stanza .

- Stock descriptive phrases .

Types of Ballad

1-] Popular ballad : A narrative folk song .

2-] Broad side ballad :  A song . Topic : A current event , well known person or debated issue . Tune : Well known . Printed on one side of a sheet of paper .

3-] Literary ballad : An imitation of the popular ballad , but written by a poet.

For an example of the literary ballad , read these first four stanzas of Coleridge’s “ The Rime of The Ancient Mariner , Part 1”.

                        It is an ancient Mariner .

Because anonymous folk ballads are part of our oral tradition , the same ballad can surface from different regions , times or peoples in different forms . An example is the 17^th century “ Barbara Allen” versions / The Cowboy’s Lament” – “ The Dying Cowboy” [ 19^th century ] .

4-] Chansons :  Simple poems meant to be sung .

5-] Epithalamium poems :  Songs written to celebrate a marriage .                   [ Edmund  Spenser ]

6-] Madrigals : Love poems meant to be sung a cappella [ without instrumental accompanimet ] by five or six singers , their voices blending and weaving and out of the melody .

Ex .Take, O! Take Those Lips Away [ William Shakespeare ]

7-] Rhapsody : Once referring to epic poetry that is sung , now rhapsody refers to very emotional poems or any sequence of literary expressions that have arbitrarily joined together .

8-] Serenades :  Evening songs . 

9-] Aubades :  Early morning songs such as Shakespeare’s “ Kark , Hark , the Lark” .

10-] Jingles :  The short , easy-to-sing songs used to sell products . Notable jingles on television include songs to sell toothpaste and hamburgers .

American Division Literature [ 11 ]

11- ] American Division Literature .

Poetry .

Ode :  A complex , serious long lyric poem modeled after Pindar [ the Grteek poet ] whose complex songs [ originally used in dramatic poetry ] were divided into numerous three-part-units consisting of the strophe , antistrophe and epode .

The English ode has three forms :

1-] Regular  or Pindaric ode  includes one stanza pattern for strophe and antistrophe , whereas epode is another stanza pattern .

2-] Irregular ode  Each stanza has its own pattern – the most common ode form in English since it was first done in 1656 by Abraham Cowley .

3-] Horatian [ homostrophic ] ode ; One repeated stanza type that may vary within the established pattern . These odes are calmer, less passionate than Pindar’s odes .

Odes are very unified with just one theme handled in an extremely dignified manner . The purpose of many odes is to eulogize someone or something such as Alexander Pope’s “ Ode on Solitude” .

Sonnet .

A fourteen-line iambic pentameter poem . There are three main types of sonnet :

1-] The Italian [ Petrarchan ] sonnet  consists of an octave [ eight lines ] or a set of two quatrains [ four lines each ] in an abbaabba rhyme scheme that asks  a question or presents a statement that is answered or somehow addressed by the concluding sestet [ six lines ] or set of two tercets [ three lines each ] . Notice Wordsworth’s use of the sonnet form in “ Nuns Fret Not” [ abbaabba / cddccd ] .                                  

2-] The English [ Shakespearean ] sonnet  consists of three quatrains [ four lines each ] concluding with couplet in an / abab  cdcd  efef  gg / rhyme scheme. You can expect the final couplete either to summarize the theme variations in the first three quatrains or to be epigrammatic .                                                                                    

3-] The Spenserian sonnet consists of the three quatrains being linked by a             continuing rhyme scheme , namely abab / bcbc / cdcd / ee / .                                          

  Like As A Huntsman After Weary Chase . [ Edmund Spenser ]                                           Once again , the concluding couplet summarizes the speaker’s point . In your study of the sonnet be aware of the sonnet cycle  ] a device used by Shakespeare and Spenser . These cycles consist of a series of sonnets that are related by theme or some other means .                                                                                                          

Here is a brief overview of the more common genres of poetry . Most are lyric ; however  , some include elements of the epic [ narrative mode and drama                  [ dramatic mode ] .                                                                                                            

Haiku  A single-stanza , three-line [ originally Japanese ] lyric poem of 17 syllables . The subject is generally impressionistic of a scene in nature or a natural object . Line 1 with five syllables . Line 2 with seven syllables . Line 3 with five syllables .

Haike.  By : C. Myers Shaffer

Hear their sad refrain

       To capture sense with a sound .

            Doves before the rain .