Composition & Essay Writing . [ 29 }

29- ] Composition & Essay Writing .

25-] Education In Egypt And How To Develop It.

                Egypt has made tremendous advances in expanding education over the last decades . Gross enrollment rates for both boys and girls steadily increased at every level of schooling showing particularly strong performance in basic education in recent years . Today 80% of   school-age students are enrolled in primary school and 68 % are enrolled in secondary school . Adult literacy increased from 26 % in 1960 to over 51 % in 1995 . Since 1980 girls’ enrollment rates in secondary as well as primary schools have been increasing rapidly and are now approaching enrollment of boys .

             The rapid expansion of access to education has been accomplished at the expense of education quality . Demographic pressures and increasingly strained resources resulted in the physical disrepair of many primary schools, overcrowded classrooms and poor teacher morale   and motivation in the face of low salaries.As a result despite substantial investment in education , learning outcomes have been disappearing .

              As a result of Egypt’s constitutional guarantee of free education at all levels has become a false entitlement, especially for the poor. From 1980/ 81 to 1990 / 91 education costs for the poor increased by roughly 7 times in urban areas and 10 times in rural areas , compared to 3 and 6 times respectively for the middle and higher income .

                  Education makes labor more productive and facilitates innovation and technological progress bringing higher economic growth . Cross-country analysis indicates that education contributes to growth.Why isn’t this process working well in Egypt ? Why is Egypt’s investment yielding low and skewed economic returns ?  Three problems explain this   1-] The supply side . There are many signs that the quality of schooling especially provided by the public sector is       low in Egypt and has probably fallen in the last two decades .

      The two other problems arise on the demand side : the link between the demand for skills in  the labor market and education’s contribution to growth. Educational expansion gas not been translated into higher productivity and income due to the lack of link between education and      labor.Education does not supply skilled workers . Until recently overall economic policy has not been market-led . As in many developing countries there is a mismatch between Egypt’s labor market realities and its institutions .

                    The dawn of the 1990s found Egypt facing serious problems in education – problems compounded by low literacy rates and exploding population. Educational quality particularly in basic education and in technical and vocational education had seriously declined . Increasing numbers of graduates were unemployable and virtually untrainable . The curriculum was generally irrelevant to the students . School quality was uneven with better quality schools in urban areas where the wealthy could pay for tutoring . Teachers lacked training in pedagogy . Learning conducted with martial drill and physical punishment , encouraged tote memorization rather than critical thinking . Chronic teacher shortages especially in rural primary schools resulted from low prestige , low pay and migration of teachers to better jobs in other countries .

                       In 1985 – 1986 nearly 155.000 primary and secondary teachers served 9.6 million people , a ratio about 62 students per teacher . An over-abundance of administrators depleted salary budgets . Serious underfunding was reflected in deteriorating buildings , overcrowded schools and classrooms , poor or absent libraries and lack of technology . Some city schools operated two and even three shifts daily. Most secondary schools lacked scientific laboratory      and computer equipment . Comprehensive educational planning tying educational programs      and output to national needs was lacking . A serious mismatch between supply and demand produced incomplete degree-holders in unwanted subjects . Unemployment was high . Almost    half of the students did not complete the basic school . Dropout and grade repelling rates were  high .

 Against this backdrop , massive changes and a sweeping revision of Egypt’s educational system aiming at upgrading, modernizing and transforming education into a coherent continuous educational process are required . The primary and preparatory curricula need to be redesigned  to be more relevant and more scientific with emphasis on experimentation and critical thinking . Texts and teaching manuals must be revised. Kindergarten needs to be designed as a part of the formal system included in the comprehensive planning. Gender and rural / urban inequities and illiteracy need to be addressed with special rural programs targeting girls programs designed to   be flexible and relevant to local needs .

                 To improve quality of the teaching staff , pre-service and in-service training must be revised and performance-related [ merit ] pay and changes in the educational standards of supervisors and inspectors must be instituted .

                        Egypt’s educational system’s weakness and problems must be recognized and addressed actually as there is a vast difference between idealized plans and implementation .          A system short on resources , stifled by bureaucracy and lacking in local expertise moves slowly . Egypt has a long expensive road to travel given the enormity of illiteracy and vast educational shortages . To reform there is a demand for effective schooling that increases labor productivity . Egypt has made progress in expanding education , but alone it does not generate economic  benefits. There must be matching of supply and demand. Education must be of reasonable    quality .

 

26-] Globalization .

                     The United Nations has written that globalization is a widely used term that can be defined in a number of different ways. It can be described as a process by which the people of      the world are unified into a single society and function together. This process is a combination of economic , technological , sociocultural and political forces . It is often used to refer to economic globalization that is integration of national economics into the international economy through trade , foreign direct investment , capital flows , migration and the spread of technology .

Noam Chomsky argues that the word globalization is also used in a doctrinal sense to describe    the neoliberal form of economic globalization. The term globalization has been used by   economists since the 1980s , although it was used in social sciences in the 1960s , however its concepts did not become popular until the latter half of the 1980s and 1990s.

                     Cultural globalization driven by communication technology and the worldwide marketing of Western cultural industries was understood at first as a process of homogenization , as the global domination of American culture at the expense of traditional diversity . However ,     a contrasting trend soon became evident in the emergence of movements protesting against globalization and giving new momentum to the defense of local uniqueness , individuality and identity .

                     As globalization is not only an economic phenomenon , a multivariate approach to measuring globalization must be used . The three main dimensions of globalization are economic , social and political . In addition to this an overall index of globalization and sub-indices referring to actual economic flows , economic restrictions , data on personal contact , data on information flows and data on cultural proximity are calculated .

                         Globalization has various aspects which affect the world in several different ways such as industrial , financial , economic , political , informational , linguistic , cultural , ecological , technical , legal / ethical etc. As for the cultural effects , the internet is associated with the process of cultural globalization because it allows interaction and communication between people with different lifestyles and from different cultures .

                          Critics of globalization argue that recent economic globalization increases the income inequality both between and within nations . The poorer countries suffer disadvantages . The main export of  poorer countries is usually agricultural goods . Larger countries subsidize their famers [ like the US and the EU Common Agricultural Policy which lowers the market price for the poor farmer’s crops compared to what it would be under free trade ] . Moreover , the developed countries are advanced in industry and all the other aspects , especially Information Technology . So they have the power over the poor countries and can monopolize every thing as a kind of domination . Movements protesting against globalization have emerged to defend local uniqueness , individuality , ethnical diversity and identity .

                        As a solution the regional organizations between different countries in various aspects, especially the economical and cultural have appeared. Some countries adopted protective measures to limit the effects of globalization . In brief , what the world needs is a kind of fair globalization that regards the interests of all the countries and spreads peace and cooperation and understanding among the peoples of the world as all are human beings and belong to humanity and mankind .

Composition & Essay Writing .[ 28 ]

28- ] Composition & Essay Writing .

23-] Cleanliness .

                            Cleanliness is the absence of dirt and contaminants to oneself and others with the purposes of health and beauty . It includes hygiene and sanitation . Hygiene is the study and practice of cleanliness as a way of maintaining good health and preventing disease . Sanitation is the systems that protect people’s health , especially those that dispose efficiently of sewage .

                           Personal hygiene pertains to hygiene practices performed by an individual to care for one’s body , health and well being through cleanliness . Motivations for personal hygiene practice include reduction of personal illness , healing from personal illness , optimal health and sense of well being , social acceptance and prevention of spread of illness to others .

                          Personal hygiene practices include seeing a doctor , seeing a dentist , regular washing [ bathing or showering ] of the body , regular hand washing , brushing and flossing of teeth , basic manicure and pedicure , feminine hygiene and healthy eating . Personal grooming extends personal hygiene as it pertains to maintenance of a good personal and public appearance which need not necessarily be hygienic . Personal hygiene is achieved by using personal hygiene products including soda , hair shampoo , hair conditioner , tooth brushes , tooth paste , cotton swabs , deodorant , cream , chopstick , lotion , nail clippers , razors , toilet paper etc. Other personal hygiene and grooming products can be used to improve health and well being .

                            Public hygiene includes public behaviors individuals can take to improve their personal health and wellness . Topics include public transportation , food preparation and public washroom use . These are steps individuals can take themselves . Examples include avoiding crowded subways during the flu season , using gloves when touching handrails and opening doors in public malls as well as going to clean restaurants .

                          Since the 7^th century Islam has always placed a strong emphasis on hygiene . Other than the need to be ritually clean in time for daily prayer ] Salat ] through ablution [ Wudu ] and Ghusl [ washing or bathing ] , there is a large number of other hygiene-related rules governing the lives of Muslims . Other issues include the Islamic dietary laws . In general the Holy Quran and Sunna [ Prophet’s tradition ] advise Muslims to uphold high standards of physical hygiene and to be ritually clean whenever possible .

                        The Early Christian leaders in Europe condemned bathing as unspiritual . Medieval church authorities believed that public bathing created an environment open to immorality and disease . Roman Catholic Church officials even banned public bathing . Modern sanitation as we know it was not widely adopted until the 19^th and 20^th centuries .

                            Nowadays there is a concept called [ public health ] strongly related to cleanliness and is one of its purposes . It is the science and art of preventing disease , prolonging life and promoting health through the organized efforts and informed choices of society organizations , public and private communities and individuals . It is concerned with threats to the overall health of a community based on population health analysis . The two distinct characteristics of public health are 1-] It deals with preventive rather than curative aspects of health . 2-] It deals with population level rather than individual level health issues . In brief the goal of public health is to improve lives through the prevention and treatment of disease .

 

24-] Cairo’s Underground Metro .

                    Cairo’s underground metro in Egypt is Africa’s only full-fledged

Metro system . The system consists of two operational lines with the construction that has begun on a third line in 2006 . The two lines carry around 700 million passengers a year and an average 2 million per day . The third line has partially been completed to parts of Heliopolis [ till 2015 ] .

                     Because of Cairo’s high population and density a better transportation system was needed . The transportation power of Cairo was before the metro 20.000 passenger per hour which jumped after the metro to 60.000 passengers per hour . The need of more trips resulted in 50 % increase in the number of taxis which in turn resulted in a higher crowding density on the streets and more pollution . A study was made about the needed capacity in 1990 for the transportation power which showed the need of 8.400 million trips a day for public transportation like buses and 2.770 million trips a day for other transportation systems like taxis and cars. The actual available capacity for public transportation is 4.872 million trips a day which is 3.5 million trips less than the needed capacity .

                    Cairo’s Metro Line 1 is the first of the Cairo’s Metro . The construction of the line started in 1982 and finished in 1989 with a cost of 973.5 million EGP . The line connects Helwan with ElMarg passing other 32 stations and is 22 km long with 4.5 km underground . It carries 60.000 passengers per hour in each direction .

                      Cairo’s Metro Line 2 is the second Line of Cairo’s Metro from Shoubra-ElKeima to Cairo University with an extension to Giza extending 21. 5 km with 20 stations . It was extended to El-Mounib .

                      Cairo’s metro Line 3 [ under construction till 2015 ] extends from the north-west of Cairo at Imbaba to the north-east at Heliopolis and will eventually serve Cairo International Airport . The total length of the line is approximately 30 kilometers .

                      A transportation study of the Greater Cairo region was completed in 1999 . It recommended the implementation of a six line system . The completed Metro Network would be capable of serving most of the densely populated areas in the Greater Cairo region which was much in need of a comprehensive mass transit system . The plans include interchange stations between six metro lines . The six planned metro lines aim to meet the transportation demands of the Greater Cairo area up to the year 2022 . However, the actual construction and implementation schedule will be restricted by available funding and it is likely that the timetable will slip . The Cairo’s Underground Metro will be a protective shield against pollution and a source of pride for Egypt .

Composition & Essay Writing [ 27 ]

27- ] Composition & Essay Writing .

21-] How To Preserve The Environment .

                      Earth resources are limited and many of them are not renewable . Even renewable resources such as food require space , water , soil etc. to produce them and this ultimately means that these resources will be taken from other living beings on Earth . Natural resources are not distributed evenly ,so wars in military or economic terms are reality of our life . So preserving the earth’s environment is all about keeping the rate of our usage of the earth’s resources slower than the rate at which the earth can  regenerate the resources so that the earth’s resources can be available to us indefinitely and our subsequent generations can enjoy the earth as much as we do .

                      To preserve the environment there are principles to follow – reduce , reuse , recycle , repair , share : do not acquire what you do not need. When you acquire stuff , make sure they are reusable or at least recyclable . Foe instance , we can reuse cloth bags for groceries , instead of paper or plastic . We can donate old furniture , computers , clothes , books etc. to be recycled , instead of trashing them .We can repair broken stuff , instead of buying new ones . We can share books , household items , magazines , newspapers , tools , cars etc.

                         As for transportation we must walk or ride in every possibility . We must remember that cars are always  a big source of pollution : greenhouse gases emission and other liquid leaks .

                         We can preserve our environment by adapting eco-friendly sources of energy such as wind energy , solar energy , hydro energy and other renewable sources of energy . Industrialization should be controlled in order to keep pure environment free from pollution . Even nuclear power is also unwise because it is just another fossil fuel , the burning of which causes pollution as well as atomic waste .

                          The developed world needs to adopt a more frugal life style that consumes fewer resources , particularly fossil fuels . The developing world needs to learn from the mistakes of others and develop public transport rather than cars and sustainable power generation rather than coal and oil fired power plants .

 

22-] Epidemics .

                              When new cases of a certain disease occur in a given human population during a given period substantially exceed what is expected , it is called endemic [ in a country ] or epidemic in more than one country or pandemic worldwide . A disease or condition is not epidemic or pandemic merely because it is wide spread or kills many people , it must also be infectious . For example , cancer is responsible for many deaths , but it is not considered a pandemic disease because the disease is not infectious or contagious .

                           There are many factors stimulating new epidemics including 1-] Contamination of water supplies and food sources 2-] International travel 3-] Climate change 4-] Poor population health [ e.g. malnutrition , high prevalence of HIV 5-[ Failure of public health programs 6-] Hospitals and medical procedures 9-] International trade 10-] Evolution of pathogen [e.g. increased virulence , drug resistance ] .

                           In the past the worldwide epidemics were black death or plague , cholera , typhus and influenza . There have been a number of significant pandemics recorded in human history which came about with domestication of animals such as influenza and tuberculosis . There have been a number of particularly significant epidemics that deserve mention . The plague of Athens 430 BC which was typhoid fever killed a quarter of the Athenian troops and a quarter of population over four years . This disaster fatally weakened the dominance of Athens . Plague of Justinian from 541 to 750 AD was the first outbreak recorded of the bubonic plague . It started in Egypt and reached Constantinople killing 10.000 a day at its height . The plague went on to eliminate a quarter to a half of the human population that struck throughout the known world . It caused Europe population to drop by around 50 % between 550 and 700 AD . The Black Death that started 1300s caused a total number of deaths worldwide estimated at 75 million people . In 1918 – 1920 due to the avian flu more people were hospitalized in World War1 from this epidemic than wounds . The estimates of the dead ranged from 20 t0 100 million worldwide . During the 20^th century it is estimated that smallpox was responsible for 300 -400 million deaths and tuberculosis killed approximately 100 million people .

                         The World Health Organization reported an unprecedented rate of infectious diseases . There has been wide concern about the natural hosts for a range of influenza A viruses . Occasionally viruses are transmitted from these species to other species and may then cause outbreaks in domestic poultry or give rise to a human pandemic . The H5NI

[ Avian flu ] virus spread in many countries from 2006 – 2008 . The swine flu has started to spread from Mexico in 2008 and it has continued to spread. It is feared that if the avian flu virus combined with a human flu virus the new subtype created could be both highly contagious and highly lethal in humans . Moreover , the swine flu is also feared to change to a highly lethal one .

 

Composition & Essay Writing ( 26 )

26- ] Composition & Essay Writing .

19-] Global Warming .

                              The increase of greenhouse gas concentration [ mainly carbon dioxide ] led to a substantial warming of the earth and the sea called global warming . In other words the increase the man-made emission of greenhouse gases is the cause of global warming .

                               Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere act like a mirror and reflect back to the earth a part of the heat radiation which would otherwise be lost to space . The higher the concentration of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide in the atmosphere , the more heat energy is being reflected back to the earth . The emission of carbon dioxide into the environment mainly from burning of fossil fuels ( oil , gas , petrol , kerosene , coal etc. ) has been increased dramatically over the past 50c years .

                             Almost 100% of the observed temperature increase over the last 50 years has been due to the increase in the temperature of greenhouse gas concentrations like water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane and ozone . The largest contribution source of the greenhouse gas is the burning of fossil fuels leading to the emission of carbon dioxide . Other greenhouse gases include but not limited to nitrous oxide , sulfer hexafluoride and chlorofluorocarbons .

                     There are two major effects of global warming 1-] Increase of temperature on the earth by about 3 to 5 degrees centigrade by the year 2100 . 2-] Rise of sea level by at least 25 meters by the year 2100 .

                     Increasing global temperatures is causing a broad range of changes . Sea levels are rising due to thermal expansion of the ocean , in addition to melting of land ice . The total annual power of hurricanes has already increased markedly since 1975 . Changes in temperature and precipitation patterns increase the frequency , duration and intensity of other extreme weather events such as floods , droughts heat waves and tornadoes . Other effects of global warming include higher or lower agricultural yields , further glacial retreat , reduced summer stream flows and species extinctions .

                     400.000 square miles of Arctic sea ice have melted in the last 30 years threatening polar bear habitats and further accelerating global warming worldwide according to the Arctic Climate Impact Assessment . About 15-37% of plant and animal species global warming could wipe out by 2050 .

                    Everyone is responsible for the global warming as the emission of carbon dioxide is the main cause . It is emitted from our use of fossil fuels. We can lessen our consumption of petrol in our cars , natural gas and energy . Take your personal responsibility seriously regarding the pollution which your existence and behavior either directly or indirectly creates . You do not only help prevent the earth from collapsing , but you help yourself too .

 

20-] Clean Energy / Renewable Energy .

                        Renewable energy sources are considered sustainable in the sense that they can not run out and their environmental and social impacts are generally more benign than those of fossil fuels . Renewable energy is generated from natural resources such as sunlight , wind ,rain , tides and geothermal heat which are renewable [ naturally replenished ] .

                        The majority of renewable energy technologies are powered by the sun . Renewable energy flows involve natural phenomena such as sunlight , wind tide and geothermal heat . Renewable energy is derived from natural processes that are replenished constantly . In its various forms it derives directly from the sun or from heat generated deep within earth . Included in the definition is electricity and heat generated from solar , wind , ocean , hydropower , biomass , geothermal resources and biofuels and hydrogen derived from renewable resources .

                        The wind power for example , can be used through air flows to run wind turbines in wind farms . There are many forms of water energy – hydroelectric [ dams and waterfalls , rivers etc. ] , dams hydro systems

[ derive kinetic energy from rivers and oceans ] , ocean energy [ using the kinetic energy of marine currents , tidal power [ energy from the tides ] , vortex power [ placing obstacles in water to cause the formation of vortices to be tapped for energy ] .

                        Agriculturally produced biomass fuels such as biodiesel , ethanol and bagasse [ by-product of sugar cane - the dry pulpy residue left after the extraction of juice from sugar cane. ] can be burned in internal combustion engines or boilers . Biogas can be easily produced from current waste such as of paper and sugar production , sewage , animal waste and so forth .

                        While most renewable energy [ projects and production ] in large-scale renewable technologies are also suited to small off-grid applications , sometimes in rural and remote areas where energy is often crucial in human development . Kenia has the world’s highest household solar ownership rate with roughly 30.000 small [ 20-100 watt ] solar power systems sold per year . More Kenyans adopt solar power every year than make connections to the country’s electric grid . So , renewable energy can be particularly suitable for developing countries to alleviate poverty to provide cheap energy for businesses and home use . Moreover , scientists from the University of Kassel have suggested that Germany can power itself entirely by renewable energy .

                        In 2006 about 18% of global final energy consumption came from renewables with 13% coming from traditional biomass such as wood burning . Hydroelectricity was the next largest renewable source providing 3 % of global energy consumption and 15 % of global electricity generation.

Wind power is growing at the rate of 30 % annually . Solar thermal power stations operate in the USA and Spain . Brazil has one of the largest renewable energy programs in the world involving production of ethanol fuel from sugar cane and ethanol now provides 18 % of the country’s automotive fuel . Ethanol fuel is widely available in the USA . By the end of 2008 there were 35.000 filling stations throughout Brazil with at least one ethanol pump . Most cars on the road today in the US  can run on blends of up to 10 % ethanol and the motor vehicle manufacturers already produce vehicles to run on much higher ethanol blends .

                        Although some renewable energy technologies are criticized for being intermittent or unsightly , the renewable energy market continues to grow . Climate change concerns coupled with high oil prices , peak oil and increasing government support – all in favor of the increasing use of the renewable energy – clean energy – energy of the future .

American Division Literature [ 15 ]

15- ] American Division Literature .

Poetry .

Forms From France .

1-] Rondeau : a poem of 15 lines in three stanzas . Lines 9 and 15 begin a refrain . The rhyme scheme is a a b ab / a a b a  / a a b b c c / . Eight-syllable lines . Alternative forms of rondeau have 12 lines [ a b b a / a b c / a b b a c] and the rondeau redouble [ six quatrains of a b a b rhyme scheme , lines 1 – 4 form the last lines of quatrains 2, 3 , 4 and 5 ] .

2-] Villanelle; a poem of 19 lines . Lines 6,12 1nd 18 repeat line 1 . Lines 9 , 15 abd 19 repeat line 3 . The rhyme scheme is a b a / a b a  aba  / a b a  a b a / a b a a / . Ex . is “ Your  Best For The Test .”

3-] Triolet : a poem of eight lines . Lines 7 and 8 repeat lines 1 and 2 . Line 4 repeats line 1 . The rhyme scheme is a b / a a / ab a b / . Ex of Triolet by W.E . Henley .

 Sound Effects .

Tone in a poem is also a product of sound effects [ their uses and tonal qualities ] . Here are a few of the more commonly found sound effects .

1-] Onomatopoeia : It refers to words that imitate sounds such as “ hiss and  buzz . It refers to words , lines and passages whose sound , size , movement and overall effect denote the sense or meaning . The sounds work together to carry meaning . Ex .Tennyson’s “ The Princess /Come Down , O Maid – 1847]

    “ …..The moan of doves in immemorial elms ,

       And murmuring of innumerable bees .

2-] Phonic echo devices :

There are major devices in which sound is repeated or “ echoes” .

A-] Alliteration : The initial consonant or consonant cluster sounds in stressed syllables are repeated [ generally in successive or closely associated  stressed syllables ] .

Ex.         Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers .

               She sells sea-shells by the sea-shore .

B-] Assonance : the same [ or similar ] vowel sounds are repeated in nearby words [ usually in stressed syllables ] . Assonance repeats only the vowel sounds and ends with different consonant sounds .

Ex.         I wish I were where Helen lies ,

              Night and day on me she cries ,

              O that I were where Helen lies ,

                      On fair Kirconnell lea !

“ I” and “ night” both contain the long “ ai” sound . This assonance is emphasized in the rhyme of “ lie” with “ cries .”

C-] Consonance :  final consonant sounds of stressed syllables are repeated while the preceding vowels are different . Consonance is often used in conjunction with alliteration [ as in reader and rider ] , however , initial alliteration is not always a factor [ as in lean , torn ] . The aural appeal can be heard in George Wither’s use of consonance in the last stanza of “ Shall I Wasting in Despair” in which d , r , v , l and t are repeated

                       Great  , or good or kind or fair

                       I wil ne’er the more despair

                       If she love me , this believe

                       I will die , ere she shall grieve .

                       If she slight me when I woo ,

                       I can scorn , and let her go .

                                 For , if she be not for me .

                       What care I for whom she be ?

D-] Cacophony And Dissonance :

Both  terms refer to harshness of sounds that produce an unpleasant or unsettling tone . A sound has dissonance when it is harsh , inharmonious or discordant with the sounds and the rhythm that surround it . A sound has cacophony when it is simply harsh in and of itself , regardless of the sounds and rhythms that surround it . Cacophony is often an accident , dissonance on the other hand [ discordance with surrounding sounds and rhythms ] can be very deliberate .Note the conscious use  of dissonance in “ Broken-Down Car” by C. Myers – Shaffer. 

 A budget bruised , bent blistered broken relic needin-fixin                             Dented dimpleddinges from fender benders galore-grief over grime and time .

------------------

Courage : There goes cash on four tires .

Frame and bumpers look in good – not me still under hood .

------------------

Clank….grind….bang…..grime grating against mental and skin .

-----------------

Start and stop motor again – not again , sorry mess

Headin’ for the Tunk-heap next , I guess

Cacophony , harsh sounds [ words ] that are unpleasant in and of themselves , can result from many things , such as too many unvoiced plosives in a poem . Some poets feel that overuse of “ s”or “ sh” sounds have a cacophonic effect and try to avoid them .

E-] Euphony : It refers to sounds that are pleasing and easy to pronounce , producing a pleasant tone . Sounds exhibiting euphony [ the opposite of cacophony ] generally contain more vowel sounds [ thought to have more        “ sonority” or resonance  than consonants and to cause more vibration or       “ voicing” sounds ] and lean toward the liquids , nasals and semi-vowels [ l , m , n , r , v , w ] with the voiced consonants being heard as “ softer” [ b , d , g , v , z ] and the unvoiced consonants as “ harsher” [ p , t , k , f , s ] . Poetry exhibiting euphony tends also to avoid difficult-to – pronounce sound combinations and to stress sound patterns that include repetitions .

American Division Literature [ 14 ]

14- ] American Division Literature .

Poetry 

Visual Poems .

The physical shape affects meaning .

1-] Shaped verse [ Renaissance emblem poetry ]

The words are shaped to fit meaning .

The Altar .  By : George Herbert

A broken ALTAR ,Lord , Thy servant rears  ,

Made of a HEART , and cemented with tears ;

        Whose parts are as Thy and did frame ;

No work man’s tool hath touched the same .

                           A HEAT alone

                           Is such a stone

                           As nothing but

                           Thy power doth cut .

                          Where fore each part

                           Of my hard HEART

                           Meets in this frame

                           To praise Thy name :

         That , if I chance to hold my peace ,

These stones to praise Thee may not cease .

   O , let Thy blessed SACRIFICE be mine ,

        And sanctify this ALTAR to be Thine .

The words here in the poem are shaped in writing to fit the altar in shape .

Satire .

Poems that embody a satiric outlook . Formal verse satire sometimes didactic in tone , satirizes some vice .

Horatian satire [ gentle ridicule ] is in the poetry of W. H. Auden . Juvenalian satire is very formal , very cutting , whereas Menippean satire uses plot , dialogue and a mixture of prose and verse .

An example of satire is Jonathan Swift , well known for his ability to satirize who penned “ A Satirical Elegy” in 1722 “ On the Death of a Later Famous General” John Churchill – a member of royalty character [ Duke of Marlborough ] and an English military hero whose character was eventually called into question .

Invective poems :  Personal attacks or lampoons [ satires against individuals ] .

Panegyric poems :  Poems that praise someone or something , especially public figures and institutions .

Epideictic poetry :  Special occasion poems

Encomiums are poems [ often in the form of odes ] that eulogize .

Epithalamiums  are poems [ that can be song ] that celebrate a wedding .

Complaint :  A lyric poem [ usually monologue ] in which the poet complains about the state of the world , his individual situation or his mistress .

An example is “ A Complaint by Night” by Henry Howard , Earl of Surrey .

Confessional poems : A contemporary form that deals with ver private matters .

Palinode :  A poem or song that retracts a previous work , often retracting an ode .

Metaphysical poetry :  Philosophical poetry written in the seventeenth century as a revolt against Elizabethan love poetry characterized by :

1] The metaphysical conceit . 2- ] Psychological analysis . 3-] Subjects : love and religion . 4-] Use of the shocking – simple diction . 5-] Form : an argument. 6-] Style : rough .

A type of metaphysical poetry is the meditative poem ,written with Renaissance poetic techniques about religious topics for religious ceremonies . An example of the metaphysical poets is John Donne .

American Division Literature [ 13 ]

13- ] American Division Literature .

Poetry .

Light Verse .

Poems intended to be humorous or witty . Types of light verse include :

1-] Vers de societe :  Those are characterized by :

Brief length , playful mood , social relationships as the subject , sophisticated style and terse tone [ brisk and generally rhymed rhythm ] .

2-] Parody :   A comic or satiric imitation of a more serious work that ridicules a work , an author or a style .

A parody can be fun to write , especially when the original poem has a very pronounced rhythm or mood . Edgar Allan Poe’s “ The Raven” has such a distinctive rhythm pattern that it works well in parody .

Ex . Here is the first stanza of the original poem :

Once upon a midnight dreamy , while I pondered , weak and weary .

Over many acquaint and curious volume of forgotten lore ,

While I nodded , nearly napping , suddenly there came a tapping .

As of some one gently rapping , rapping at my chamber door .

“Tis some visitor,” I muttered , “ tapping at my chamber door –

     Only this and nothing more .

Here is a parody of the preceding stanza .

Once upon a schoolday dreary , while I studied , weak and weary .

Over many acquaint and curious volume of literature .

Feeling grisly , grim and grumbling , suddenly there came a rumbling .

A gruesome gripping kind of rumbling , rumbling that was premature .

“Tiiiiis my stomach ,” then I muttered , “ rumbling here so premature –

           Candy bars will be the cure .

3-] Limerick :  A poem of five anapestic lines with an aabba rhyme scheme . Lines 1,2 and 5 are trimeter , lines 3 and 4 are dimeter . The limerick is a form of nonsense verse .

x  x     /        x   x       /         x   x    /

I sat next / to the Duch / ess at tea .                         a

 x  x        /      x x       /          x     x       /

It was just / as I thought / it would be .                   a

   X      /      x      x         x    x

Her rumblings ab / dominal .                                  b

   x         /    x    x        /   x  x

Were simply phe / nomenal .                                     b

   x     /     x     x          /          x  x      /

And ev / ery one thought / it was me .                         a

4-] Occasional Verse :  Genrally written for specific occasions , such as coronations , birthdays , and deaths . For official occasions , the English poet laureate is expected to write the occasional poem . An often cited occasional poem was written in 1681 by Andrew Marvell . The poem “ An Horatian Ode Upon Cromwell’s Return From Ireland ,” is based upon Cromwell’s return to England in 1650 , at which time he prepared to go to battle against the Scots .

5-] Epigrams :  They are short poems that are characteristically witty with a twist in the thought at the end . An epigram , however , can also be defined as simply a clever saying used for a variety of purposes including to eulogize , to compliment or to satirize .

This anonymous Latin epigram sums up the point .

6-] Epitaph :  Generally a short poem { an epigram ] intended for a tombstone [ or as if for carving on a tombstone . The epitaph may be comic .

My Own Epitaph . By : John Gay

Life is a jest ; and all things show it .

I thought so once ; but now I know it .

An Epitaph Upon A Young Married Couple .

Dead And Buried Together .  By : Richard Crashaw

To these , whom death again did wed ,

This grave is their second marriage-bed .

For thought the hand of fate could force

“ Twixt soul and body a divorce , It could not sunder man and wife

Cause they both livéd but one life .

Peace , good reader , Do not weep

Peace , the lovers are asleep

They sweet turtles , folded lie

In the last knot love could tie .

And though they lie as they were dead ,

Their pillow stone , their sheets of lead ,

( Pillow hard , and sheets not warm )

Love made the bed ; they’ll take no harm ;

Let them sleep , let them sleep on .

Till this stormy night be gone ,

Till th’eternal morrow dawn ;

Then the curtains will be drawn

And they wake into a light ,

Whose day shall never die in night .

7-] Epigraph [ motto ] :  The quotation or inscription on a statue , on a coin , before chapter headings , and on title pages of books .

8-] Clerihew  Named after the writer of detective fiction [ Edmund Clerihew Bentley ] .