4- ] Grammar American & British .
Chapter Four .
Noun .
Noun
↓
concrete -------------------abstract
↓
common-------------proper
↓
A noun is or word group that is used to name a person , a place , a thing , or an idea .
Person Hala , Amr ,
Tom , teacher , Mr. Hassan etc.
Place Cairo , town ,
Egypt , USA , school , etc.
Things apple , table , dogs , stone
, fish etc.
Ideas happiness , freedom , honesty , democracy etc.
The
Grammatical Functions of Nouns .
A noun may be used :
1- ] As the subject of a sentence .
Example
The boy opened the door .
2- ] As the direct object of a verb .
Example
I saw the boy .
3- ] As an indirect object .
Example
I told the boy a story .
4- ] As the complement of a verb .
Example
He is a clever boy .
5- ] In a phrase with a preposition [ prepositional phrase ] .
Example
I spoke to the boy . The House of Commons .
6- ] As a prepositional object .
Example
Give the money to your brother .
7- ] As the antecedent ( the word for which the relative pronoun
stands ) of a relative pronoun .
Example
The ship that took the passengers sailed soon .
1- ]Noun
Classification ( Kinds ) .
Proper
Nouns and Common Nouns .
Proper Nouns
A proper noun denotes a particular person , place , thing , or idea and begins with a capital letter .
Examples Omar , Cairo Tower , Arabic , River Nile , Africa , Europe ,
England etc.
Common Nouns
A common noun denotes any one of a group of persons , places ,
things or ideas and is not generally capitalized .
Examples man , engineer , country , language , bravery , computer , cow , hill
etc.
Concrete
and Abstract Nouns .
Concrete Nouns ( material )
A concrete noun names a person , place or thing that is material
and can be perceived by one or more of the senses ( sight , hearing , taste ,
touch , smell ) .
Examples apple , milk , rice , fish , music , smoke , the Amazon , the Res
Sea
Abstract Nouns
An abstract noun denotes an idea , a feeling , a quality or
characteristic , and states or activities .
Examples honor , liberty , self-control , beauty , Islam , Arabic , fun ,
truth , pleasure , laughter , love , wisdom arrival etc.
Practice
.
Common and Proper Nouns .
Identify each noun by writing common or proper . If a noun is
common , also write concrete or abstract to further identify it .
1- ] The Rocky Mountains in Colorado are majestic .
2- ] Cats are frequently accused of mischief .
3- ] A spirit of goodwill pervades the Special Olympics .
4- ] John eats tomatoes in the summer .
5- ] Ali met my aunts in Paris .
Compound Nouns
.
A compound noun is a single noun made up of two or more words used
together . The compound noun may be written as one word , as a hyphenated word
or as two or more separate words . The elements composing a compound may be
almost any part of speech , e.g. schoolmaster ( noun + noun ) , quick-silver (
adjective + noun ) , whitewash ( adjective + verb ) , pickpocket ( verb + noun
) , overlook ( adverb + verb ) , walking-stick ( gerund + noun ) . The most
important pattern in compound nouns is noun + noun , or gerund + noun , and the
first element only is stressed .
Examples
One word grandfather , basketball , filmmaker , Iceland , grasshopper ,
Passover , Greenland etc.
Separate words fire drill , North America , grand piano , jumping jack etc.
Hyphenated word self-control , fund-raiser ,
president-elect , eight-year-olds , mother-in-law , light-year etc.
It is the single stress which differentiate compound nouns from
‘word groups’ In word groups both elements take stress .
Examples
góld ring / lády dóctor , rìce pŭdding , stóne wáll ,
Lóndon policeman , Óxford University .
If the group is longer than two words the principle is the same ,
each word has stress , e.g. Tóttenham Cóurt Róad , Lóndon Pássenger
Tránsport Bóard .
This differentiation by stress is important , as it may convey
difference of meaning . Thus a bláck bìrd can apply to any bird ( e.g. a
crow or a raven ) which is black . : a blackbird is a bird of a particular
species ( turdus merula ) .
The first word , both in word groups and compound nouns is the
‘qualifier or modifier’ , and a reversal of position may bring about a complete
change of meaning . Thus a race-horse is not the same as a horse-race ,
lawn-tennis as a tennis-lawn , a Grammar School as a school grammar , a
flower-garden as a garden-flower .
In number of compound nouns , especially those that have been in
the language a long time during which the original meanings of their elements
have become obscured , the vowel in one or other and even occasionally in both , has become
shortened or otherwise modified .
Examples
breakfast , shepherd , forehead , cupboard , Sunday , Newton ,
Portsmouth , bonfire , postman , etc.
2-
] ( Noun Number ) Singular and Plural
Nouns .
Singular
Nouns .
Singular nouns denote one and plural nouns denote more than one .
Examples
singular nouns plural nouns
car cars
man
men
egg eggs
brush
brushes
Singular Nouns
The singular nouns are divided into countable and uncountable nouns
.
Countable
And Uncountable Nouns .
Countable nouns
The countable nouns are those that can be counted .
Examples
a , one / car , book , pen , wall , boy etc.
Uncountable nouns
Nouns that cannot be counted such as abstract nouns .
Examples
freedom , beauty , milk ,
iron , wool , etc.
Material nouns that stand for substances are countable in nouns
like boys , books , apples , and sheep . But they are uncountable in nouns like
bread , sand , glass , steam , water , ink etc. , as they stand for substances
that cannot be counted , they can only be measured . Some of these words , e.g.
glass , paper , stone , etc. can be countable in one context and , with a
different meaning , ‘uncountable’ in another .
Examples
A glass ( countable ) is made of glass ( uncountable ) .
You can throw a stone ( countable ) at a wall made of stone (
uncountable ) .
The price of tin ( uncountable ) rose today . The food is packed in
tins ( countable ) .
Common nouns may be countable or uncountable ; most abstract nouns
, e.g. help , courage , perseverance , truth , are uncountable . But some
abstract nouns are countable and can be used in the plural , e.g. ideas ,
opinions , truths , etc. Only countable nouns have a plural form , and only
countable nouns can be preceded in the singular by the indefinite article ( a ,
an ) .
Proper nouns , since they are the names of a particular person ,
place or thing are usually singular , but they are countable and may at times
be plural , e.g. the Himalayas , the West Indies , the Smiths ; or in such a
sentence as ‘There are three Johns in my class .
Countable
Nouns .
Singular
and Plural .
The Indefinite Articles ‘a’ / ‘an’
‘A’ and ‘an’ are called indefinite articles . The singular
countable indefinite nouns are preceded by ‘a’ or ‘an’ . ‘A’ and ‘an’ are
called indefinite articles because they refer to any of a general group . ‘A’
is used before a noun beginning with a consonant sound . ‘An’ is used before a
noun beginning with a vowel sound ( a , e , i , o , u ) .
Examples
‘a’ consonant sound
a cat , a pen , a table , a
river , a boy , a man , a child , a tree , etc.
‘an’ vowel sound ( a , e , i , o ,
u )
an apple , an ant , an animal , an arm
an egg , an ear , an elephant , an eagle
an ice-cream , an island
an orange , an ogre , an olive , an onion
an umbrella
Plural
Nouns .
Forming
The Plurals of Nouns .
1- ] To form the plurals of most nouns , add ‘s’ to the end of the
noun .
Examples
girl , girls
/ breeze , breezes / task , tasks / banana , bananas / orange , oranges
2- ] To form the plurals of nouns ending in ‘s , ss , x , z , ch ,
sh’ , add ‘es’ .
Examples
bus , buses / moss , mosses
/ fox , foxes /waltz , waltzes / watch ,
watches / brush , brushes
- Some one-syllable nouns ending in ‘z’ , the final consonant is
doubled when forming plurals
Examples
fez , fezzes / quiz , quizzes
3- ] To form the plurals of nouns ending in ‘y’ , preceded by a
consonant , change the ‘y’ is to ‘I’ and add ‘ –es’ .
Examples
lady , ladies / hobby , hobbies / city , cities / country ,
countries
4- ] To form the plurals of nouns ending in ‘y’ preceded by a vowel
, ‘s’ is added to the end of the noun .
Examples
toy , toys / journey , journeys / highway , highways
5- ] To form the plurals of most nouns ending in ‘f’ , change ‘f’
to ‘v’ and add ‘es’ .
Examples
loaf , loaves / knife , knives / wife , wives / thief , thieves /
wolf , wolves
Exceptions
Some nouns ending in ‘f’ form their plurals by adding ‘s’ and ‘f’
is not changed .
Examples .
gulf , gulfs / belief , beliefs / roof , roofs / cliff , cliffs / reef , reefs / proof , proofs / chief , chiefs / hoof ,
hoofs / turf , turfs / safe , safes / dwarf , dwarfs / grief , griefs .
- Some words have both forms
Examples
scarfs , scarves / wharfs , wharves / staffs , staves / hoofs ,
hooves .
6- ] To form the plurals of nouns ending in ‘o’ preceded by a vowel
‘s’ is added .
Examples
studio , studios / radio , radios / video , videos / patio , patios
/ Romeo , Romeos / piano , pianos / cello , cellos / cuckoo , cuckoos / cameo ,
cameos / bamboo , bamboos / portfolio ,
portfolios /curio , curios
7- ] The plural form of many nouns ending in ‘o’ preceded by a
consonant is formed by adding ‘es’ .
Examples
veto , vetoes / hero , heroes / tomato , tomatoes / potato ,
potatoes
Exception
silo , silos
8- ] You should form the plural of most musical terms ending in ‘o’
preceded by a consonant by adding ‘s’ .
Examples
piano , pianos / alto , altos / solo , solos / trio , trios
- Those words that are still felt to be ‘foreign’ take the ‘-s
form’ . The principal ones are .
pianos , photos , dynamos , magnetos , kilos , mementos , solos
9- ] To form the plural of some nouns ending in ‘o’ preceded by a
consonant , you may add either ‘s’ or ‘es’ .
Examples
banjo , banjos , banjoes / mosquito , mosquitos , mosquitoes / flamingo , flamingos ,
flamingoes
- The best way to determine the plural forms of nouns ending in ‘o’
preceded by a consonant is to check their spellings in an up-to-date dictionary
.
10- ] For most compound nouns written as one word , form the plural
by adding ‘s’ or ‘es’ as the noun ends .
Examples
textbook , textbooks / grandfather , grandfathers / toothbrush ,
toothbrushes
11- ] For many compound nouns in which one word is modified by the
other word or words , we form the plural of the word modified .
Examples
sister-in-law , sisters-in-law / coat of arms , coats of arms /
editor-in-chief , editors-in-chief
12- ] Some nouns are the same in the singular and the plural .
Examples
moose / sheep / fish / salmon / deer / Sioux / Chinese / spacecraft
13- ] Form the plurals of numerals , letters , symbols , and words
referred to as as words by adding an apostrophe and ‘s’ .
Examples
1800 , 1800’s / B , B’s / i , i’s / 8 , 8’s / that , that’s
Nouns
With No Singular Form .
Some nouns are never used in the singular .
14- ] Some nouns that are plural in form take singular verbs .
news , innings , gallows , works , physics ,
As a rule so are all other sciences or subjects ending in’-ics’ .
civics , economics , electronics , genetics mathematics , physics ,
phonetics , linguistics
-But this usage is not fixed . Singular or plural can often be used
. Many nouns that end in ‘s’ , such as mumps , measles , ethics , statistics ,
and politics , depending on the meaning , may require either a singular or a
plural verb . In general , if the noun refers to a whole such as a disease , or
a science , it requires a singular verb . If it is referring to qualities ,
activities or individual items , it requires a plural verb .
Examples
Mumps is contagious . [ singular ]
Mumps are itchy [ plural ]
Statistics is one of my favorite courses . [ singular ]
Statistics are the basis for many reports . [ plural ]
Politics have ( has ) always interested me .
Mathematics is ( are ) well taught at that school .
The news is good .
The first innings is finished .
An ironworks is being built .
- Names of diseases or illnesses : mumps , measles .
Examples
gymnastics / molasses /, summons
Electronics is a branch of physics .
Gymnastics is my favorite Olympic sport .
15- ] Nouns that are plural in form and name singular objects take
plural verbs .
- Articles of dress : trousers , breeches , knickers , pants ,
pyjamas , shorts , drawers , clothes .
- Tools and instruments consisting of two parts : scissors , shears
, pliers , pincers , spectacles . glasses , tongs , bellows .
They form their singulars by using ‘a pair of ’ , ‘a pair of
trousers’ .
Examples
shoes , binoculars , pants , eyeglasses , pliers , shorts , slacks
, shears , scissors , trousers
My shoes are black .
My pair of shoes is black .
Her binoculars were stolen .
She uses a pair of binoculars to watch animals in the forest .
16- ] Names of some games : billiards , cards , bowls , dominoes ,
draughts .
- Miscellaneous other words : alms , riches , eaves , scales ( for
weighing ) , contents ( of a book ) , goings-on , gentry , dregs , pats
credentials , tidings , soap-suds , winnings , sweepings , shavings , savings ,
filings , surroundings , ashes ( from the fire , but cigarette as ) .
A plural verb is used with the above words .
Examples
Riches do not always bring happiness .
Oats are grown in Scotland .
Cards are played every evening .
- But if these words are used attributively in compound nouns ,
they are usually made singular .
Examples my trouser leg , oat cakes , a card table .
17- ] Even when plural in form , the title of a creative work (
such as a book , song , film , or painting ) or the name of a country , city ,
or organization generally takes a singular verb .
Examples
Netherlands / Friends of the Earth / the United States
Netherlands is famous for its windmills .
Friends of the Earth is concerned with environment .
17- ] An expression of an amount ( a measurement , a percentage or
a fraction for example ) may be singular or plural , depending on how it is
used . A word or phrase stating an amount is singular when the amount is
thought of as a unit . When a plural noun of amount refers to one unit , it
acts as a singular subject . When it refers to individual units , it acts as a
plural subject .
Examples
Eight dollars is the cost of the ticket . [ singular ]
Eight dollars lie on the table . [ plural ] z
Fifteen dollars is enough for the book .
Sixteen ounces equals one pound .
Is two weeks long enough for hiking trip ?
18- ] Sometimes , however , the amount is thought of as individual
pieces or parts . If so a plural verb is used .
Examples
Ten of the dollars were borrowed .
Two of the hours were spent at the theater .
A fraction or a percentage is singular when it refers to a singular
word and plural when it refers to a plural word .
Examples
Sixty percent of the money was spent on food .
Sixty percent of our resources were used .
One fourth of the salad is gone .
Forty percent of the students are new .
19- ] Expressions of measurement ( such as length , weight and area
) are usually singular .
Examples
Ten feet is the height of a regulation basketball hoop .
Sixteen by twenty inches is a standard size for a picture frame .
Ten millimeters equals one centimeter .
Seventy-five pounds is the maximum baggage weight for this airline
.
Practice
Agreement with
Special Subjects .
Write the correct verb form from the choices in parentheses .
1- ] Fourteen by twenty feet ( is , are ) the size of the room .
2- Many a day ( passes , pass ) without significance , or so it
seems . 3- ] On its way south , the flock ( feeds , feed ) in lakes and ponds .
4- ] One half of the amount called for in the recipe ( is , are )
usually enough .
5- ] Economics ( is , are ) a popular college course .
6- ] Seven percent of our salaries ( goes , go ) toward retirement
.
7- ] Three dollars ( is , are ) in my coat pocket .
8- ] Every entrant ( receive , receives ) a prize .
9- ] The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics ( was , were ) a
former political unit .
10- ] “The Bean Eaters” ( is , are ) a poem by Gwendolyn Brooks .
Practice
.
Subject-Verb
Agreement .
Write the subject of each sentence . Then write the correct verb
from the choices in parentheses .
1- ] News ( travels , travel ) fast in a small community .
2- ] Shingles , a sometimes painful infection ( attacks , attack )
certain nerves .
3- ] Even fifty thousand dollars ( does , do ) not buy what it did
twenty years ago .
4- ] Tgere ( is , are ) the missing pieces of the puzzle .
5- ] Everyone ( knows , know ) that Earth is round .
6- ] Only 3 percent of the housewives in our area ( has , have )
swimming pools .
7- ] Managing restaurants ( is , are ) very demanding work .
8- ] The United States ( has , have ) many different climates .
9- ] Many a person ( wishes , wish ) to live a life of leisure .
10- ] All of the information ( has , have ) now been released . Irregular
Plurals .
The plurals of some nouns are formed in irregular ways .
1- ] There are eight nouns which form their plural by a change of
vowel .
man , men ( and compounds of man , e.g. gentleman , gentlemen ) /
tooth , teeth / foot , feet / mouse , mice / woman , women / goose , geese /
louse , lice / dormouse , dormice .
- The plural of mangoose is mangooses :’dormouse’ is a compound of
‘mouse’ but ‘mangoose’ is not a compound of ‘goose’ .
2- ] Some words have the same form for singular and plural
Examples
sheep / swine / deer / fish ( also fishes ) .
- To these could be added the names of other animals , especially
when used in a hunting context . This applies to game , birds and fish .
Examples
to hunt elephant , antelope , etc.
to shoot wild duck , grouse
to catch salmon , trout
3- ] The plural is unchanged in some words showing number and
measurement of weight .
Examples
two dozen ( abbreviation ‘doz’ ) eggs
three hundred pounds
four thousand people
two gross of pencils .
three score years
two stone of potatoes
four hundredweight ( abbreviation cwt ) of coal
10,ooo candle-power
20 horse-power
forty head of cattle
two yoke of oxen
2, 300, 50 is read two million , three hundred thousand , five
hundred and one .
- These words ( except ‘gross’ ) take ‘-s’ when they have no
numeral in front of them
Examples
dozens of eggs
hundreds of pounds
scores of times
hundredweights of coal
Sometimes either form is possible
He weighs twelve stones .
He weighs twelve stone .
He is six feet tall .
He is six foot tall .
4- ] These words are the same in singular or plural .
barracks , species , series , means , works ( and compounds like
gas-works , iron-works , etc. ) .
So , too , are some proper nouns that end in a ‘hissing’ sound .
Swiss , Chinese , Japanese , Portuguese , Viennese
5- ] Three words form their plural in ‘-en’ . They are :
, child , children / ox , oxen / brother , brothren ( is now used
with the meaning ‘members of the same society or religious order ) .
Collective
Nouns .
A collective noun is a word that names a group . It is singular in
form but names a group of persons , animals or things .
Common
Collective Nouns .
people
|
troop
|
public
|
audience
|
chorus
|
committee
|
crew
|
faculty
|
family
|
jury
|
police
|
army
|
cast
|
assembly
|
class
|
crowd
|
group
|
club
|
team
|
brood
|
flock
|
gaggle
|
herd
|
litter
|
pack
|
pod
|
batch
|
cluster
|
collection
|
fleet
|
set
|
bundle
|
squadron
|
fruit
|
furniture
|
sheep
|
fish
|
deer
|
swarm
|
quartet
|
A collective noun takes a singular verb when the noun refers to the
group as a unit , and takes a plural verb when it refers to the individual
parts or members of the group .
Examples
The football team is playing well .
The football team are having baths and are then coming back here
for tea .
The Government has decided to pass the bill .
The Government have discussed the matter for a long time but they
have shown no signs of reaching agreement .
That family is a very happy one .
The family are very pleaded about the news of his success .
Sheep like to frisk and run .
The committee discuss(es) the results of the research .
A swarm of bees is (are) collecting nectar from flowers in the
garden .
- The nouns ‘people , police , public , clergy , cattle’ are always
used with a plural verb .
Examples
The police are attacking the
criminals in the area .
The police are making enquiries about the murder .
The public are requested not to leave litter in these woods .
The people of Norway are called Norwegians .
- ‘People’ is often used as the plural of ‘person’ ; it also means
‘nation’
Example
The French people , the peoples of Europe .
Exercises
.
1- ]Which of the following : not common nouns , abstract , collective .
country , tree , peace , Sherlock Holmes , flock , sheep , Rubens ,
square , patience , beauty , Bodmin , rivalry , meeting , city traffic , noisiness
, Hyde Park , crowd .
2- ] Which of the following nouns are ‘countable’ and which are
‘uncountable’ ?
dog , meat , nuisance , thunder , spoon , fish , cheese , board ,
party , tree .
3- ] Form abstract nouns from these words .
proud , beautiful , parent , likely , coward , traitor , infant ,
sane , courteous , young .
4- ] What is the correct collective noun for a number of :
1- ] lions 2-] sheep 3- ] people at a football match 4- ] wolves 5-
] elephants 6- ] fish 7- ] people listening to a concert 8- ] sailors on a ship .
Exercise
Give the plural of the following :
1- ] bacillus . 2- ] axis . 3- ] radius . 4- ] hypothesis 5- ]
crisis 6- ] phenomenon 7- ] fungus 8- ] cactus .
Practice
.
Collective Nouns .
Write each collective noun . Label it S if it is singular and P if it is plural .
1- ] The committee is concluding its report .
2- ] The jury sits to the left of the judge .
3- ] During periods of heavy rain , the traffic police wear their
rain gear .
4- ] The orchestra is opening the concert with an overture .
5- ] The herd grazes on government grassland .
6-] The audience were told to find their seats .
7- ] Each winter the family goes skiing in Canada .
8- ] The band are wearing their uniforms .
9- ] The volleyball team received medallions last week .
10- ] The crowd cheers when the team enters the field .
Foreign
Plurals .
1- ] There is a large number of foreign words that have been
absorbed into English . Sometimes , especially in the technical language of
science , these have not been thoroughly ‘naturalized’ and they keep their
foreign plural forms . The largest number by far of these foreign plurals are
of Latin or Greek origin .
Examples
Latin
axis , axes / bacillus , bacilli / medium , media / stratum ,
strata / bacterium , bacteria / locus , loci / radius , radii / corrigendum , corrigenda / addendum ,
addenda / erratum , errata / larva , larvae / nebula , nebulae .
Greek
analysis , analyses / basis , bases / crisis , crises / hypothesis
, hypotheses / thesis , theses / phenomenon , phenomena / criterion , criteria
/ oasis , oases .
2- ] The longer the words have been in the language , the more they
tend to conform to the English plural in ‘-s’ . Some words are at the half-way
stage with two plurals , the original foreign one and the English one .
Examples
appendix – appendixes , appendices / formula , formulas , formulae
/ terminus , terminuses , termini / fungus , funguses , fungi / retina ,
retinas , retinae / cactus , cactuses , cacti / focus , focuses , foci /
aquarium , aquariums , aquaria / curriculum , curriculums , curricula / maximum , maximums , maxima / memorandum
, memorandums , memoranda / minimum ,
minimums , minima / sanatorium , sanatoriums , sanatoria / vortex , vortexes ,
vortices / automation , automations , automata .
3- ] Most words taken in fairly recent times from French or Italian
have their original and also their English plural . Practically all the older
words conform to the English pattern .
Recent words with two forms are :
bureau , bureaus , bureaux /
tableau , tableaus , tableaux / portmanteau , portmanteaus , portmanteaux / adieu
, adieus , adieux / trousseau , trousseaus , trousseaux / bandit , bandits ,
banditti / libretto , librettos , libretti / soprano , sopranos , soprani /
virtuoso , virtuosos , virtuosi .
- In some cases the two plurals have different meanings .
Examples
Singular Plural Meaning
index
indexes = tables of
contents
indices = algebraic
signs
geniuses = persons of unusually great mental
powers
genius
genii = good or evil spirits
dies = metal stamps for making
money .
die
dice = small cubes
of bone or wood used in games of chance .
formulas = forms or words .
formula
formulae = mathematical
terms .
mediums = people
claiming communication with spirits .
medium
media = means , agencies
4- ] Many foreign words have now become completely naturalized and
always take the English plural .
Examples
bonuses , choruses , circuses , isthmuses , omnibuses ,
prospectuses , areas , arenas , encyclopedias , eras , ideas , panaceas ,
peninsulas , sonatas , solos , umbrellas , villas , albums , asylums , chrysanthemums ,
museums , irises , demons .
Exercise
What is wrong with the following sentences , and why ?
1- ] I have come to perfect my knowledges of English .
2- ] Can you give me any informations or advices on this matter ?
3- ] The news are good this evening .
4- ] I opened the letter and it contained an important information
.
5- ] I went to my doctor for an advice about my health .
6- ] I have several jackets , but only one trousers .
7- ] My pyjama is at the laundry .
Plurals
And Compound Nouns .
1- ] Old compound nouns usually form their plural as if they were
simple nouns – the final element is made plural .
Examples
schoolroom , schoolrooms / armchair , armchairs / horseman ,
horsemen / housewife , housewives /
washerwoman , washerwomen / toothbrush , toothbrushes .
2- ] This is generally the case even when the elements of the
compound are not themselves nouns .
Examples
handful , handfuls / breakdown , breakdowns / drawback , drawbacks
/ outbreak , outbreaks / forget-me-not , forget-me-nots .
3- ] This also generally the case even if the compound consists of
two separate words .
Examples
ticket collector , ticket collectors / watch repairer , watch
repairers / girl guide , girl guides / boy scout , boy scouts / motor show ,
motor shows
4- ] In the following , both elements are made plural
man servant , men servants / gentleman farmer , gentlemen farmers /
woman servant , women servants ( maid servant , maid servants ) / man student ,
teacher , doctor , etc. , men students , teachers , doctors / lord-justice ,
lords justices / Knight-Templar , Knights-Templars
5- ] In syntactical compounds , especially where the first compound
is a noun qualified by a prepositional phrase , adverb or adjective , it is the
noun which takes the plural form .
Examples
father-in-law , fathers-in-law / mother-in-law , mothers-in-law /
commander-in-chief , commanders-in-chief / man-of-war , men-of-war / looker-on
, lookers-on / passer-by , passers-by / justice-of-the-peace ,
justices-of-the-peace / governor-general , governors-generals / court-martial ,
courts-martial / poet laureate , poets laureate
- But , especially in popular speech , there is a tendency to say :
mother-in-laws / court-martials / attorney-generals /
commander-in-chiefs / poet laureates
But always will-o’-the-wisps / good-for-nothings / ne’er-do-wells
-An interesting peculiarity is the occasional use of the plural
form to intensify the meaning expressed by the singular or to suggest great
quantity or extent .
Examples
the sands of the desert
the snows and frosts of the Antarctic
the waters of the lake
the heavens above our heads
a walk through the woods
swayed between hopes and fears
Exercise
.
Form compound nouns or ‘word groups’ to express :
1- ] A knife for cutting paper . 2- ] a blade for a safety-razor .
3- ] A box for holding matches . 4- ] A desk for writing at . 5- ] A paper
giving news and published . 6- ] An instrument for pulling corks out of bottles
. 7- ] A pair of scissors for cutting finger nails . 8- ]A driver of taxis .
9- ] A machine for cutting the grass on a lawn . 10- ] A man whose profession
is lending money . 11- ] A place where cotton cloth is made . 12- ] A machine
for washing clothes . 13- ] A fish that is golden in color . 14- ] A man who
gets coal out of the ground . 15- ] A wall made of bricks . 16- ] A man who
makes a brick wall . 17- ] A room where you have meals . 18- ] A room in which
you sleep . 19- ] A room in which you both live and sleep . 20- ] A lamp that
is filled with oil .
Noun
Subject and Verb Agreement ( Concord ) .
Number
.
Number is the form a word takes to indicate whether the word is
singular or plural . When a word refers to one person , place , thing or idea ,
it is singular in number . When a word refers to more than one , it is plural
in number .
1- ] A verb should agree in number with its subject . Singular
subjects take singular verbs .Plural subjects take plural verbs . When a
sentence contains a verb phrase , the first helping verb in the verb phrase agrees
with the subject .
Examples
The boy is here . The boys are here .
The girl has been delayed .
The girls have been delayed .
2- ] Two or more subjects connected by ‘and’ take a plural verb .
Compound subjects joined by ‘and’ usually take a plural verb .
Examples
Our dog and cat get baths in summer .
The boy and his dog are here .
But if the two subjects joined by ‘and’ are considered as one thing
, a singular verb is used . A compound subject that names only one person or
thing takes a singular verb .
Examples
Macaroni and cheese is my favorite pasta dish .
Brown bread and butter is usually eaten with smoked salmon .
His courage and endurance was tried to the utmost .
The stitching and binding of books is done on his machine .
The secretary and accountant of the Company was present . ( One man
doing both jobs )
The secretary and the accountant of the Company were present . (
two persons )
3- ] If the second noun is merely part of a phrase qualifying the
first singular noun , the verb is singular . The number of a subject is not
changed by a phrase following the subject .
Examples
The boy with his dog is here .
Mr. Aly accompanied by his wife and three children has just arrived
.
The successful candidate , along with two of her aides has
entered the auditorium . ( The helping
verb ‘has’ agrees with the subject ‘candidate’. )
4- ] Singular subjects joined by ‘or , nor , ‘neither….nor’ take
a singular verb .
Examples
The chief geologist or her assistant is due to arrive .
Neither a rabbit nor a mole does that kind of damage .
A cup of tea or a cup of coffee is very enjoyable .
Neither Sarah nor Aly has come yet .
- When a singular subject and a plural subject are joined by ‘or’ ,
‘nor’ , the verb agrees with the subject nearer the verb . But by the rule of
proximity , if one subject is singular and another one is plural , the verb
generally agrees with the nearest subject . Plural subjects joined by ‘or’ ,
‘nor’ take a plural verb .
Examples
Either mice or squirrels are living in our attic .
A book or flowers usually make an appropriate gift .
Flowers or a book usually makes an appropriate gift .
Either the teacher or the students are to blame for the bad results
.
Neither he nor they are wholly right .
5- ] If the subject is the indefinite pronoun ‘all , any , more ,
most , none , some’ , its number may be determined by the object of a
prepositional phrase that follows it .
Examples
Most of the essays were graded .
Most of this essay is illegible .
6- ] The distributives ( distributive adjectives each , every ,
both , neither , either ) take a singular verb and a singular possessive
adjective .
Examples
Every boy in the class is present .
Each of the boys has gained
a prize .
Neither answer is correct .
Everybody is doing his / her best .
But this rule about using a singular possessive adjective with
distributive adjectives like ‘everyone , each , etc.’ is especially in
conversation , frequently disregarded owing to the fact that there is not in
English a possessive adjective that can stand for both masculine and feminine ,
singular and plural nouns . Consequently the plural ‘their’ is frequently used
.
Examples
Everyone was talking at the top of their voices .
When each person comes in they must show their ticket .
7- ] ‘None’ may take a singular verb or a plural one .
Examples
‘None but the brave deserves the fair .’ ( Dryden )
None of us is perfect .
None of the children in his class are bored with the lesson .
I have checked your answers and none of them are correct .
8- ] The indefinite pronouns ( An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun
that does not refer to a definite person , place , thing , or idea ) ‘ anybody
, anyone , anything , each , either , everybody , anybody , anyone , anything ,
each , either , everybody , everyone , everything , neither , nobody , no one ,
nothing , one , somebody , someone , something’ are singular .
Examples
Each of the newcomers was welcomed to the city .
Does anybody speak Arabic ?
9- ] The word ‘number’ sometimes takes a singular verb , sometimes
a plural one .
Examples
The number of students in the class is small .
A number of students were waiting for the lesson to begin .
10- ] The following indefinite pronouns are plural : both , few ,
many , several .
Both Sarah and Rasha are good students .
Few people like this kind of music .
Many children play in this park .
Several cars park in this parking area .
11- ] The indefinite pronouns ‘all , any , more , most , none ,
some’ may be either singular or plural ,
depending on their meaning in a sentence . The number of the pronouns ‘all ,
any , more , most , none , some’ is often determined by the number of the
object in a prepositional phrase following the subject . These pronouns are
singular when they refer to a singular word and are plural when they refer to a
plural word .
Examples
All of the fruit is ripe .
All of the pears are ripe .
Some of the harvest has been sold .
Some of the apples have been sold .
12- ] The verb agrees with the pronoun ‘it’ in identifying or
emphatic sentences
Examples
‘Who broke the window ?’ ‘It was Hassan and Aly .
It is they who are wrong .
13- ] The relative pronoun takes the same number and person as its
antecedent .
Example
This is one of the best books that have ever been written on the
subject .
14- ] If the ‘formal subject’ there is used , the verb agrees with
the real subject .
Examples
There is a cherry tree in my garden .
There are cherry trees in my garden .
Pretest
Identifying the
Simple subject and the correct Verb Form .
Write the simple subject of each sentence . Then write the correct
verb from the choices in parentheses. 1- ] There ( was , were ) two
alligators at the edge of the swamp .
2- ] Neither the windows not the door ( was , were ) locked .
3- ] A grove of oak trees ( protect , protects ) the house from the
wind .
4- ] Neither the hammer nor the nails ( was , were ) in the toolbox
.
5- ] Maria , one of the star skaters in the ice revue , ( teaches ,
teach ) ice-skating in her free time .
6- ] Eighty percent of this test in mathematics ( deals , deal )
with fractions .
7- ] Here ( is , are ) the statistics from the Bureau of the Census
.
8- ] Toast with peanut butter and bananas ( is , are ) Abla’s
favorite breakfast .
9- ] The center of attraction ( was , were ) the three clowns .
10- ] Everyone in the organization ( participates , participate )
in the fund-raiser .
11- ] To raise horses ( takes , take ) patience .
12- ] All of the bicycles in the parade ( was , were ) decorated .
13- ] ( Has , Have ) the contest winners been announced yet ?
14- ] The pedestrians who crossed in the middle of the street ( was
, were ) given traffic tickets .
15- ] News of events in foreign countries ( reaches , reach ) this
country in minutes .
16- ] Ninety-nine cents ( is , are ) the price of the bottle of
vitamins .
17- ] Every boy and girl in school ( has , have ) purchased a
ticket for the field trip .
18- ] The United States ( is , are ) bordered by Canada and Mexico
.
19- ] The chorus ( joins , join ) the orchestra in the opening
number of the concert .
20- ] The class of 90 ( is , are ) coming from many parts of the
country for the reunion .
Practice
.
Subject-Verb
Agreement .
Write the correct verb from the choices in parentheses .
1- ] ( Has , Have the invitations been sent ?
2- ] She ( sits , sit ) in the second row from the left .
3- ] The new shopping mall ( opens , open ) in two weeks .
4- ] I ( is , am ) going to the mall when it opens .
5- ] ( Does , Do ) she always check her arithmetic ?
6- ] The cars ( is , are ) covered with dust .
7- ] That story ( is , are ) one of the saddest I have ever heard .
8- ] Mile markers ( was , were ) placed along the interstate
highway .
9- ] The last few days ( has , have ) been perfect .
10- ] The wheat ( is , are ) turning gold across the Midwest .
Agreement
With Compound Subjects .
A compound subject that is joined by ‘and’ , ‘both -----and’ is
plural unless its parts belong to one unit or they both refer to the same
person or thing .
Examples
The Tigris and the Euphrates flow through southwestern Asia . [
plural ]
Both rivers and streams provide irrigation for farmland . [ plural
]
Toast and tea is my favorite breakfast [ singular , one unit ]
Her friend and companion is Sara . [ singular , one person ]
With compound subjects joined by ‘or’ , ‘nor’ [ or by either …. or
/ neither ---- nor ] , the verb agrees with the subject closer to it .
Examples
Either the tortoise or the hare wins the race .
Raisins or an apple makes a good snack .
Neither Noura nor her friends like winter .
Neither foxes nor dogs eat only meat .
Practice
.
Agreement with
Compound Subjects .
Write the complete subject of each sentence . Then write the
correct verb form from the choices in parentheses .
1- Both trucks and buses ( is , are ) hard on road surfaces .
2- ] Neither the equipment nor the uniforms ( has , have ) arrived
yet .
3- ] Her attorney and confidant ( is , are ) Rosa .
4- ] Bread and butter ( is , are ) an American staple .
5- ] Neither a letter of recommendation nor good grades (
guarantees , guarantee ) a scholarship .
6- ] Either an orange or prunes ( is , are ) healthful for
breakfast .
7- ] Both Florida and California ( thrives , thrive ) on tourism .
8- ] Peanuts and popcorn ( is , are ) common party snacks .
9- ] Burger and cheese ( is , are ) my regular sandwich .
10- ] Neither falling rocks nor icy pavement ( keeps , keep )
automobiles off the road .
3- )
Nouns Gender .
The concept of gender has no grammatical function in modern English
. It is possible , however , to group words into three categories according to
whether they can be replaced by the pronouns ‘he’ , ‘she’ , or ‘it’
respectively . In all but a few cases these categories correspond to the ideas
of ‘male , ‘female’ and ‘inanimate’ . Animals are usually referred to by the
pronoun ‘it’ , but may also be spoken of as ‘he’ or ‘she’ according to their
sex . Thus we have these categories .
1- ] Masculine gender for all words representing males .
Examples
boy , king , uncle , prince
2- ] Feminine gender for all
words representing females .
Examples
girl , queen , aunt , princess
3- ] Neuter gender for inanimate objects .
Examples
book , house , pencil , table
- Words which may designate either males or females are sometimes
said to be common gender .
Examples
cousin , friend , child , teacher , etc.
Masculine
And Feminine Forms .
Generally , when there is no wish to make a distinction of sex ,
the masculine form is used . In other cases , however , a separate form will be
used for the female .
1- ]The female is formed from the masculine by adding ‘-ess’(
sometimes with other slight changes )
Masculine Feminine Masculine
Feminine
poet
poetess
priest
priestess
author
authoress
shepherd
shepherdess
god
goddess Viscount Viscountess
heir
heiress
actor
actress
host
hostess
waiter
waitress
Jew Jewess emperor empress
giant
giantess
negro
negress
prince
princess
tiger tigress
Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine
baron
baroness
murderer
murderess
manager
manageress
marquis
marquess , marchioness
lion
lioness
conductor
conductress
master
mistress
Another Cases
bride
bridegroom widow widower
2- ] The feminine is different from the masculine .
Masculine Feminine
Masculine Feminine
boy
girl
bullock
heifer
man
woman
brother
sister
sir madam gentleman
king queen lord lady
earl countess son daughter
father
mother uncle aunt
husband
wife
nephew niece
bachelor spinster monk
horse ( stallion )
mare friar nun
bull
cow tutor governess
wizard
witch
cock
hen
drake
duck
buck doe
gander
goose
colt
filly
dog
bitch
stag
hind
ram
ewe
boar
sow
fox
vixen
3- ] In words of common gender , the distinction of sex may be
shown by forming a compound word of which one element denotes the sex .
Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine
manservant
maidservant boy cousin girl cousin
man friend
woman friend landlord landlady
he-bear
she-bear he-wolf she-wolf
cock sparrow
hen sparrow peacock peahen
he-goat ( billy-goat ) she-goat ( nanny goat ) tomcat tabby cat
4- ] There are a number of ‘foreign feminines’ . The most common is
‘heroine’ ( masculine ‘hero’ ) . Other examples of foreign feminines are :
Masculine Feminine
Masculine
Feminine
executor
executrix
beau
belle
prosecutor
prosecutrix testator testatrix
Czar ( Tsar ) Czarina ( Tsarina ] Sultan Sultana
5- ] With regard to words of common gender , it is interesting to
note that occasionally for living beings we have three words , one masculine ,
one feminine and one common gender .
Examples
Masculine Feminine Common
father
mother parent
boy girl
child
son daughter
man
woman person
king
queen
monarch , sovereign , ruler
schoolmaster schoolmistress teacher
stallion
mare
horse
ram
ewe
sheep
boar
sow
pig
cock
hen
bird , fowl
Exercise
What are the feminine forms of the following words ?
1- ] bachelor 2-] sir 3- ] monk
4- ] cock 5- ] widower 6- ] executor
7- ]fox 8- ] wizard 9- ] ambassador 10- ] marquis
4- )
Nouns : Case .
Grammatical case is the relation in which one noun or pronoun
stands to some other word in the sentence , or the form of the noun or pronoun
which shows that relation .
In Old English , nouns had five cases : Nominative , Vocative ,
Accusative , Genitive and Dative – each generally distinguished by ‘case
endings’ .
In modern English there is only one case ending for nouns : the
Possessive ( or Genitive ) . There is no distinction in form between nouns that
are in the nominative case and nouns that are in the objective case , though
there is this distinction with some pronouns .
The
Possessive ( Genitive ) Case .
1- ]The possessive form of the noun is formed as follows - ( sometimes
called the ‘Saxon Genitive’
A- ] For singular nouns by adding (׳s) apostrophe s
. ( The usual ending for the Old English genitive singular was ‘-es’ . When ,
later, the ‘-e’ was omitted ; its absence was shown by an apostrophe (‘ ).
Examples
The boy’s book ( i.e. the book of the boy ) .
Aly’s house ( i.e. the house of Aly ) .
Keats’s poems ( i.e. the poems of Keats ) .
- With some names , chiefly classical ones , ending in ‘s’ , we use
only the apostrophe .
Examples
Hercules’ labors
Phoebus’ horses
St. Agnes’ Eve
Moses’ laws
Sophocles’ plays
- Also : for goodness’
sake , for conscience’ sake
B - ] For plural nouns ending in ‘s’ by adding apostrophe only .
Examples
The boys’ house ( i.e. the house of the boys ) .
The soldiers’ horses ( i.e. the horses of the soldiers ) .
C- ] For plural nouns not ending in ‘s’ ( a very limited number )
by adding ( ׳s )
Examples
The men’s room ( i.e. the room of the men ) .
The women’s society ( i.e. the society of the women ) .
The children’s toys ( i.e. the toys of the children ) .
2- ] When the ‘possessor’ is represented by a number of words , the
possessive ending is used with the last one only .
Examples
Crosse & Blackwell’s jam
Bryant & May’s matches
Jones , the butcher’s shop
my father-in-law’s house
The Prince of Wales’s feathers
my father and mother’s friends
3- ] The possessive , or genitive case shows possession using the word
‘possession’ in its widest sense . Thus the possessive form ‘John’s father’
does not mean that John ‘possesses’ his father , nor does ‘Shakespeare’s death’
mean that Shakespeare ‘possesses’ death . The genitive form is used to indicate
not only possession in its strict sense of the word but something , signified
by another noun , which appertains to the person .
4- ] The possessive form is used chiefly with the names of human
beings and some animals .
Examples
John’s friend
Mrs. Brown’s car
the cat’s tail
a spider’s web
- With inanimate things we use the ‘of’ construction .
Examples
the window of the room / not ‘the room’s window’
the colors of the flowers
the noise of the traffic
the walls of the house
the foot of the mountain
- There are some exceptions to this rule :
A- ] In the case of nouns denoting measurement , time or space , or
quantity .
Examples
a week’s holiday
two days’ wages
a year’s absence
an hour’s time
today’s post ‘ yesterday’s news
a stone’s throw
a hair’s breadth
a pound’s worth
B- ] In a number of traditional idiomatic expressions .
Examples
at his wits’ end / out of harm’s way / to your heart’s content / in
my mind’s eye / to get one’s money’s worth
Exercises
Express by using the possessive form
1- [ The car of my father .
2- ] The car of my parents .
3- ] The property of my son-in-law .
4- ] The toys of the children .
5- ] The reign of William the Conqueror .
6- ] The plays of Sophocles .
Combine by means of a double possessive :
1- ] play – Shakespeare 2- ] friend – Jamal 3- ] fugue – Bach 4- ]
hobby – Cecil 5- ] work – Hugo .
Subjective
And Objective Genitive .
When a possessive word qualifies a noun that has something of the
verbal force ( i.e. that denotes an action ) , the relation of this noun to the
possessive word may be that of [a] a verb to a subject , or [b] a verb to an
object .
Examples
‘Adel’s murder’ may imply [a] that Adel committed the murder , or
[b] that Adel was murdered
‘ The King’s praise’ may imply [a] that the King praised someone as
in
He was pleased by the King’s praise .
or [b] that someone praised the King as in
He is always singing the King’s praise .
- Similarly with the ‘of’ construction when the noun has a ‘verbal
association’ .
Examples
- ‘The love of his wife’ may imply [a] that he loved his wife as in
He did that for love of his wife .
or [b] that his wife loved him as in
He was happy in the love of his wife .
- ‘The punishment of the teacher’ may imply [a] that the teacher
gave punishment as in
The teacher’s punishment of the boy was severe .
or [be] the teacher was punished or received punishment .
The teacher’s punishment by the manager was severe .
In the examples (a) the genitive case indicates that the subject or
doer of the action . They are subjective genitive .
In the examples [b] it indicates the object or receiver of the
action . They are examples of the objective genitive .
Elliptical
Use Of The Genitive .
Ellipsis
Leaving out a word or words from the grammatical structure of a
sentence when the meaning can be understood without it / them .
Example
The sentence ‘He is dead and I alive.’ contains an ellipsis ( i.e.
of the word ‘am’) .
1- ] The genitive is frequently used ‘elliptically’ ( i.e. without
a headword when referring to a business , building , etc.
Examples
I must go to the butcher’s this morning . ( butcher’s = butcher’s
shop )
We visited St. Paul’s . ( St. Paul’s Cathedral )
He was educated at Merchant Taylors’ . ( Merchant
Taylors’ School )
We are having dinner at my aunt’s tonight . ( aunt’s house )
I bought this at Harridge’s . ( Harridge’s shop )
- The headword is sometimes omitted to avoid repetition .
Examples
She put her arm through her brother’s ( arm ) .
I have read some of Shaw’s plays , but none of Shakespeare’s (
plays ) .
William’s is the only homework that is never badly done .
‘Whose book is this ?’ ‘It’s Aly’s .’
2- ] The ‘of’ construction cannot be used with ‘classifying
genitives’ ( i.e. genitives that are completely adjectival .
Examples
He is a ship’s carpenter . ( not the carpenter of the ship )
She is a lady’s maid .
He has a doctor’s degree .
It was a summer’s day .
3- ] With proper nouns the genitive is perhaps commoner than the ‘of’
construction ; the later is used mainly for balance .
Examples
‘Henry’s work ‘ - ‘the work
of Henry and John’
‘Scott’s Waverley’ – ‘The collected novels of Scott’
- We should also use the of construction in order to avoid putting
an ‘s’ to a long phrase .
Examples
Richard Cromwell was the son of Oliver Cromwell , the Protector of
England . ( not ‘Oliver Cromwell the Protector of England’s son .
This is the car of the man we met . ( not ‘the man we met’s car’ )
Exercise
.
Describe the forms of genitive used in the following sentences :
1- ] Those shoes are my brother’s .
2- ] The soldiers’ horses were superbly harnessed .
3- ] Shakespeare’s birth took place at Stratford-on-Avon .
4- ] St. John’s is a well-known College in Oxford .
5- ] That officer holds a master’s certificate .
The
Double Possessive .
The double possessive is the use of the ‘s’ form and the ‘of ’ form together .
Examples
He is a friend of Henry’s .
We saw a play of Shaw’s .
This construction is very similar in meaning to ‘one of Henry’s
friends’ , ‘one of Shaw’s plays’ .
- A difference is that ‘a friend of Henry’s , ‘a play of Shaw’s’
could be said if Henry had only one friend , or if Shaw had written only one
play .
This construction is of importance since it enables us to make a
difference in meaning between :
Examples
A portrait of Rembrandt ( = one portraying him )
A portrait of Rembrandt’s ( = one painted by him or belonging to
him )
a criticism of Shaw ( = opinion about Shaw )
a criticism of Shaw’s ( = opinions by Shaw )
